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41 Cards in this Set
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Walster et al
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o 752 M + F students.
o Questionnaire assessed “desirability” + students randomly allocated partner. o Unseen observer rated physical attractiveness. o Participants asked to rate partner afterwards. o PFound that regardless of own attractiveness rating, participants asked for a date with partner. o Suggests that idea of matching social desirability is not accurate. o BUT: there was no chance of rejection in this study. |
Challenges Matching Hypothesis
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Murstein et al
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o Follow up from Walster et al.
o Photos of 197 couples in various statuses of relationship. o 8 judges rated physical attractiveness (unaware that photos were of couples). o Couples had similar scores suggesting similar social desirability levels. |
Supports Matching Hypothesis
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Griffitt and Guay
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o Participants evaluated on a creative task by experimenter.
o Asked how much they liked the experimenter. o Results were most positive when experimenter was positive also. o Suggests that attraction is dependent on fulfillment of needs. |
Supports Rewards/Needs Satisfaction
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Aron et al
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o Participants completed self-report questionnaire about romance + measured brain activity.
o Measured high on questionnaire – showed strong activity in brain. Reward neurotransmitter dopamine had elevated levels for those more deeply in love – suggests that relationships trigger reward areas of brain. |
Challenges Rewards/Needs Satisfaction
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Hays
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o Found rather than focussed on rewards, students desired fairness and gave priority to rewarding partner.
o Suggests people do not just want rewards but also giving too. |
Challenges Rewards/Needs Satisfaction
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Simpson et al
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o Participants asked to rate members of opposite sex in terms of attractiveness.
o Those in a relationship gave lower ratings. o Suggests people try to maintain relationships by perceiving alternatives as being less profitable. |
Supports Social Exchange Theory
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Sedikides
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o Found that people don’t just care about self + profit but also for the partner.
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Challenges Social Exchange Theory
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Murstein et al
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o Does not apply to everyone, only to those who “keep score”.
o Only applicable to relationships that lack trust and confidence. |
Challenges Social Exchange Theory
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Stafford and Canary
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o 200 married couples complete equity + relationship satisfaction questionnaire.
o Highest satisfaction in relationships with high equity. o Over benefited had greater satisfaction than under benefited. o Suggests equity is important in a successful relationship. |
Supports Equity Theory
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Clark and Mills
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o Distinguished between exchange (colleagues) and communal (lovers) relationships.
o People are more concerned in giving in a communal relationship. o Suggests differences between relationships. |
Challenges Equity Theory
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Gray and Silver
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o 45 couples who had filed for divorce.
o Both male and female put themselves in better light. o Supports concept of grave-dressing phase. |
Supports Duck + Rollie's Model
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Kassin
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o Found that women blame unhappiness + men blame lack of sex.
o Women want to stay friends but men want a complete break. o Suggests individual differences that are not considered by the model. |
Challenges Duck + Rollie's Model
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Argyle
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o Found women blamed lack of emotional support whilst men blamed lack of fun.
o Suggests the model is too simplistic (individual differences) |
Challenges Duck + Rollie's Model
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Baxter
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o Found lack of stimulation is usually the main cause for breakdown.
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Supports Duck's Theory
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Boekhout et al
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o Asked undergraduates to rate sexual + emotional reasons for breakdown.
o Sexual reasons associated with men, emotional with women. o Supports idea of lack of stimulation and skills. |
Supports Duck's Theory
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Holt and Stone
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o Found little decrease in satisfaction in long distance relationships as long as they reunite regularly.
o Challenges concept of maintenance difficulties. |
Challenges Duck's Theory
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Buss
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o 37 samples obtained from 6 continents + 5 islands → 10,047 samples.
o Mean age of men was 23. o Sampling method varied to attract diverse sample. o Asked biographical information. o Asked what age they would like to marry, what age difference + how many children. o Asked to rate characteristics in terms of importance and whether they wanted these characteristics in their partner. o Found men rated good looks more than women. o Both males and females preferred the man to be older. o Women rated financial prospects higher than men. o Both rated intelligence, kindness + dependability as desirable. o Suggests that men look for attractiveness + women look for resources. |
Supports Sexual Selection
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Singh
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o Waist to hip ratio is universally consistent.
o However other research did not find this. o Singh concluded the WHR is an initial screen that filters fertile from unhealthy and that other factors come into play afterwards. o Suggests fertility and attractiveness is important to men. |
Supports Sexual Selection
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Strassberg and Holty
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o Constructed 4 “female seeking male” ads – 500 responses in 6 weeks.
o Most popular where female was “financially independent”, “successful” and “ambitious”. o Produced more responses than “lovely, attractive, and slim”. o Suggests real world evidence that men do not always consider attractiveness and fertility which contradicts sexual selection. |
Challenges Sexual Selection
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Clark and Hatfield
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o 96 US uni students approached to either go on a date, go to the person’s apartment or go have sex.
o Male = Female for dates o 11x more males agreed to go to the apartment. o 75% of males agreed to sex whereas 0 females agreed. o Shows that men are less careful since they invest less. |
Supports Parental Investment
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Buss
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o Males engage in short term sexual relationships because they cannot be sure of paternity + want to invest less.
o Men are distressed by sexual betrayal because of cuckoldry. o Women are distressed by emotional betrayal because they do not want to lose the resources held by the man. |
Supports Parental Investment
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Andersson et al
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o Found fathers invest equally in step children and biological children when considering college education.
o Challenges parental investment concept of cuckoldry and shows that men do invest in children that are not theirs. o Parental investment could be considered outdated since the main aim is not necessarily to pass on the genes any more. |
Challenges Parental Investment
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LeVine et al
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o Young people in 11 different countries.
o Asked whether they would marry someone they did not love but had all the qualities they desired in a marriage partner. o 49% Indians agreed 3.5% Americans 7% English o Suggests that non-western consider impact on others whereas Western consider themselves and are more independent. |
Supports Culture
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Gupta and Singh
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o 100 Indian marriages: 50 arranged / 50 love.
o Love marriages lost satisfaction over time. o Arranged marriages had low satisfaction initially but grew greater than love marriages. o Suggests reason for marriage differs across cultures. o Love is more important in Western cultures. |
Supports Culture
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Hazan and Shaver
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o 620 participants between 14-82
o Conducted word association questionnaire to investigate link between attachment + current relationship health. o Found that continuity hypothesis is applicable in real life. o Secure attachment lead to healthy relationships. o Avoidant don’t require relationships; resistant express insecurity. o BUT: responses may have reflected current relationship not past ones. |
Supports Continuity Hypothesis
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Belsky
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o Found secure women had good relationships with husbands + generally secure individuals had stronger, healthier relationships.
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Supports Continuity Hypothesis
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Brennan and Shaver
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o Insecure-avoidant engaged in more one night stands + preferred sexual contact rather than emotional.
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Supports Continuity Hypothesis
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Kunce and Shaver
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o Insecure-resistant women reported highest levels of “mothering” partner and giving “compulsive caregiving”.
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Supports Continuity Hypothesis
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Zimmerman et al
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o Group of children in Germany + found life events were more of an indicator of adult attachment than child attachment. Suggests individual differences.
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Challenges Continuity Hypothesis
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Rutter et al
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o Found evidence that adults who had problematic relationships with their parents could secure good adult relationships – known as “earned security”.
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Challenges Continuity Hypothesis
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RIchard and Schneider
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o Found gender differences suggesting upbringing is a factor + that attachment type can change.
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Challenges Continuity Hypothesis
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The Matching Hypothesis
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- More likely to be romantically involved if closely matched in their ability to reward each other in terms of physical attractiveness.
- Choose someone who matches our own social desirability to prevent rejection. - Influenced by desirability and probability: realistic choices |
- Walters et al
- Murstein et al |
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Rewards/Needs Satisfaction Theory
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- Attracted to people whose presence is rewarding and meet our needs.
- People enter relationships with biological and emotional needs. - Based on Operant Conditioning. - More likely to be attracted to someone who brings pleasure: reinforcement. - Positive feelings must outweigh negative feelings for the relationship to succeed. |
- Griffitt and Guay
- Aron et al - Hays |
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Social Exchange Theory
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- People are fundamentally selfish and view feelings in terms of profit.
- The greater the reward and lower the cost means the greater the profit. - Compare current relationship to previous/alternative relationships to gauge how profitable the current one is. - We develop a comparison level: a standard which judges all others. - The comparison level is produced from experiences. - If an alternative relationships has more profit than the comparison level, it will be seen as being worthwhile. |
- Simpson et al
- Sedikides - Murstein et al |
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Equity Theory
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- People strive to achieve fairness in a relationship.
- Distress is caused by imbalance in perception of fairness. - Equity does not mean equality: based on impressions of fairness. |
- Stafford and Canary
- Clark and Mills |
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Duck and Rollie's Model
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- Phase model which shows multiple stages rather than a one-step event.
- Once one stage is completed, it moves onto the next. - The Stages: • Breakdown: Dissatisfaction with the relationship • Intra-Psychic Phase: Considering factors that cause dissatisfaction. • Dyadic Phase: Expression of dissatisfaction • Social Phase: Going to others to help with break up. • Grave-dressing Phase: Coming up with story to feel better. • Resurrection Process: Goes public and try to find another relationship. |
- Gray and Silver
- Kassin - Argyle |
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Duck's Theory
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- Based on several factors that cannot be fulfilled that lead to breakdown.
- Lack of skills: Lacking of social skills to maintain a relationship. - Lack of stimulation: Not enough rewards to keep partner in the relationship. - Maintenance Difficulties: e.g decreased daily contact. |
- Baxter
- Boekhout et al - Holt and Stone |
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Sexual Selection
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- Anisogamy (differences between eggs + sperm) influences sexual selection.
- Males produce a lot of sperm and so can pass on their genes to many - but they cannot be sure of paternity. Therefore they will have sex as much as possible to increase chances of genes being carried on. This leads to them choosing partners who show signs of fertility (beauty). - Females have limited eggs which require a lot of investment but she can always be sure of maternity. Therefore she will pick a partner who can look after her and the offspring. - Intrasexual selection: competition between males. - Intersexual selection: females choosing males based on preferences. - Waist to Hip Ratio - Physical Attractiveness - Sperm competition - Courtship. |
- Buss
- Singh - Strassberg and Holty |
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Parental Investment
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- Parental Investment is investment by parents to ensure the survival of their offspring and therefore their chances of passing on genes.
- Women invest more because they are limited to the number of children they can have so want to increase their survival chances. - Males take a quantity not quality approach and invest less because they have more potential children because of increased sperm. - Maternal Investment: • Eggs are bigger so require more energy • Women get pregnant so will have to invest 9 months • Childbirth is painful and there is a risk of death. • Nutrients are taken from the mother through breastfeeding. - Cuckoldry is investing in children that are not yours - Evolution may have resolved issues regarding sexual and emotional jealousy. - Men have become jealous of sexual act and women with emotional act to ensure the survival of the offspring. |
- Clark and Hatfield
- Buss - Andersson et al |
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Culture
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- Western cultures allow voluntary interactions with large groups of people.
Non-western cultures have less interaction due to mobility and therefore less choice of people. - Western cultures emphasise idea of individualism allowing freedom in relationships - Non-western cultures focus on collectivism so relationships are based on family relations. - Love is cited as much more important in Western cultures. |
- LeVine et al
- Gupta and Singh |
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Early Experience: Continuity Hypothesis
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- Bowlby states that attachment is an adaptive characteristic.
- Primary caregiver provides foundation for future relationships through an Internal working model. - Continuity Hypothesis is the idea that similar relationships will occur in adulthood. - Abuse as a child can lead to impairment when forming adult relationships. |
- Hazan and Shaver
- Belsky - Brennan and Shaver - Kunce and Shaver - Zimmerman et al - Rutter et al - RIchard and Schneider |
