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123 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is introspection? |
- First systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures (thoughts/images/sensations) [Wilhelm Wundt] - marked the separation of scientific psychology from philosophical psychology |
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Describe the discoveries of Wilhelm Wundt. |
- opened first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879) - aim: to document/describe the nature of human consciousness (structuralism) - used introspection: participants reflected on cognitive processes and described them |
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What are the weaknesses of introspection? |
- behaviourists: participants recalling own throughts=objective data=not scientific - conscious thoughts can't be observed/measured, more empirical methods should be used |
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What are the control methods used to make introspection more scientific? |
- introspections recorded in strict controlled conditions - same standardised instructions given to all participants=replicable |
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How did psychology begin to emerge as a science? |
- 20th century: Watson questionned scientific status of introspection=behaviourist approach - Watson/Skinner: natural science methods+psychology=behaviourism methods still used today - 1960s: cognitive revolution=study of mental processes now legitimate science in psychology - biological approach uses experimental data |
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What are the strengths for the scientific method for psychology? |
- knowledge accurate/produces facts=objective/controlled studies - establishes causes of behaviour/allows theories to be tested=psychological treatmentsq |
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What are the weaknesses for the scientific method for psychology? |
- strictly controlled=doesn't reflect behaviour in natural environments - certain areas of human mind/behaviour can't be observed=can't use scientific method to measure |
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What is the behaviourist approach? |
- A way of explaining behaviour in terms of learning/observable behaviour |
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What are the assumptions for the behaviourist approach? |
- focuses on observable/measurable behaviour - Watson: rejected introspection=used lab experiments (control/objectivity) - learning processes same in all species (classical/operant) |
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Describe the process of classical conditioning. |
- food (unconditioned stimulus) causes dog salivation (unconditioned response) - bell (neutral stimulus) produces no response - bell+food causes salivation - bell (conditioned stimulus) causes salivation (conditioned response) - learning through association |
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What is operant conditioning? |
- when behaviour is shaped by the consequences - positive/negative reinforcement and punishment |
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Describe Skinner's experiment into operant conditioning. |
- rat in a box - when rat activated lever=food pellet dropped into box - rat would continue to press lever - food pellets stop=no longer press lever (extinction) |
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From Skinner's experiment, what were the three types of consequences of behaviour discovered? |
- Positive reinforcement - Negative reinforcement - Punishment |
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What is positive reinforcement? |
- certain behaviour receives a reward, encouraging behaviour to be performed again |
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What is negative reinforcement? |
- certain behaviour avoids negative punishment, making behaviour likely to occur again |
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What is punishment? |
- certain behaviour receives unpleasant consequence, decreasing likelihood of behaviour occurring again |
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What are the evaluation points for the behaviourist approach? |
S: uses scientific methods=measurable/ observable behaviour high control S: classic conditioning to treat phobias =requires less effort from the patient W:animals/humans passive vs SLT/cognitive ;people more active=learning theory applies less to humans W: suggests all behaviour determined by past experiences (ignores free will) W: animals in Skinner's experiment exposed to stressful conditions=affected reactions |
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What is social learning theory? |
- An explanation of behaviour is learned from experience. however proposed through observation/imitation of others |
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Describe Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment. |
- young children watched adult being aggressive to Bobo doll - later observed playing with toys=behaved more aggressively |
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Describe Bandura and Walters experiment |
- children shown video of adult being aggressive to Bobo doll - group 1: adult praised;group 2: adult punished;control: no consequence - given own Bobo doll: group 1 most aggressive, then control, then group 2 |
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What are the three aspects to social learning theory? |
- vicarious reinforcement - mediational processes - identification |
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What is vicarious reinforcement? |
- involved in indirect learning/key factor of imitation - individual observes behaviour that gets rewarded=imitates behaviour (learns behaviour indirectly due to consequences) |
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What are mediational processes? |
- cognitive factors between stimulus and response that mediate the learning process to determine if a new response is acquired |
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What are the mediational processes? |
- Attention: how much we notice behaviour - Retention: how well we remember behaviour - Motor reproduction: ability for the learner to perform the behaviour - Motivation: will to perform the behaviour |
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What is identification in social learning theory? |
- more likely to copy behaviour perspective identify with e.g. role models - rode model determined=similar/desired characteristics to observer - role model doesn't have to be physically present (media majorly affects behaviour) |
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What are the strengths of social learning theory? |
- Actions of humans/animals involves info on others behaviours;SLT provides more complete explanation - explains cultural differences in behaviour (learn behaviour from those around them=cultural norms passed) - less deterministic;emphasised reciprocal determinism=also have influence on behaviours we perform;hold people responsible for actions |
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What are the weaknesses of social learning theory? |
- Bandura's theories: child behaviour observations artificial=demand characteristics e.g. Bobo doll=children hit it as they were expected to - Bobo doll experiment=boys more aggressive;doesn't explore factors=not complete=less validity |
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What is the cognitive approach? |
- An approach focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour |
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What are the assumptions for the cognitive approach? |
- internal mental processes can be studied scientifically - investigates areas ignored by behaviourists - study them indirectly, making inferences of what happens in people's minds based on their behaviour |
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How are theoretical and computer models used in the cognitive approach? |
- study internal processes, includes info processing approach=info flows through cognitive system in stages (input/storage/retrieval) - computer models: mind likened to computer in how info is processed - use concepts of central processing unit/coding/stores |
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What is a schema? |
- Packages of info/ideas developed through experience=framework for interpreting incoming info to the cognitive system |
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What is the role of schema in the cognitive approach? |
- cognitive processing often affected by person's beliefs/expectations - babies born with simple motor schema for innate behaviour (grasping) - schema become detailed as we get older - enable us to process info quick;may distort sensory info |
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What is cognitive neuroscience? |
- The scientific study of biological structures that influence cognitive processes |
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What did Broca discover in 1860s? |
- Identified damage to frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production |
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How did cognitive neuroscience begin to emerge? |
- advances in brain scanning techniques=systematically observe neurological basis of mental processes - useful in establishing neurological basis of mental disorders - cognitive neuroscience focus expanded recently to computer models=mapping techniques - future application: analyse brain wave patterns to determine lies |
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What are the evaluation points for the cognitive approach? |
S: controlled methods=researchers infer cognitive processes at work;lab experiments =reliable/objective data W: computer analogy criticised=ignores human emotion=may affect ability to process info W: infer mental processes from observable behaviour=occasionally too abstract;artificial stimuli=not represent memory in everyday S: applied to wide range of practical/theoretical contexts (AI)=revolutionise future S: self determinism=cognitive system operate in limits what we know/free to think before responding to stimulus |
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What is the biological approach? |
- The perspective that emphasizes importance of physical processes in the body e.g. genetic inheritance/neural function |
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What are the assumptions for the biological approach? |
- everything psychological is first biological=look at structures (genes/neurochemistry/nervous system) - understand brain function=explain thoughts - mind and brain are one=thoughts have physical basis |
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How is it determined if a behaviour has a genetic basis? |
- behaviour geneticists=study if behaviour characteristics are inherited like physical characteristics - twin studies: determine if traits had genetic basis=compare extent twins share characteristics - identical>non-identical=suggest genetic basis |
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What is a genotype? |
- The particular set of genes that a person possesses |
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What is a phenotype? |
- The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment |
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How can genotype and phenotype be used to explain behaviour? |
- expression of genotype influenced by environment - illustrates much of human behaviour depends on interaction between inherited factors and the environment |
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According to Charles Darwin, how does evolution affect behaviour? |
- natural selection=any genetically determined behaviour aids survival passed on - similar to farmers choosing best to breed - selection=traits give possessor certain advantages=likely to pass on genes - individual survives but doesn't reproduce=traits don't remain in gene pool |
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What are the evaluation points of the biological approach? |
S: develop psychoactive drugs=treat serious mental illnesses=revolutionised treatment S: investigate genetic/biological basis=precise /scientific methods;advanced tech=accurately measure processes obejctively =reliable data W: studies show drug reduces symptoms=assumed neurochemical causes disorder;association doesn't mean cause W: human behaviour=internal/biological cause we have no control;legal implication=loop hole for escaping conviction W: twins/families have similar genes/environmental conditions=findings could support nature/nurture(dizygotic twins>siblings) |
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What is the nervous system? |
- specialised network of cells in our body - primary internal communication system |
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What are the two main functions of the nervous system? |
- collect/process/respond to environmental information - co-ordinate working of different organs/cells |
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What are the two sub-systems of the nervous system? |
- central nervous system (CNS) - peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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What is the central nervous system? |
- origin of all complex commands and decisions - consists of the brain and the spinal cord - passes messages to/from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS |
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What are the characteristics of the brain? |
- centre of all conscious awareness - outer layer (cerebral cortex) highly developed in humans - divided into two hemispheres |
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What are the characteristics of the spinal cord? |
- extension of the brain - responsible for reflex actions |
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What is the peripheral nervous system? |
- transmits information from the environment to the CNS and messages from the CNS to the muscles/glands via neurons |
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What are the two sub-systems of the PNS? |
- autonomic nervous system (ANS) - somatic nervous system (SNS) |
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What is the autonomic nervous system responsible for? |
- governs vital bodily functions (breathing, heart rate, stress responses) - transmits info from/to internal organs;operates involuntarily |
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What are the two main subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system? |
- sympathetic nervous system - parasympathetic nervous system |
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What is the somatic nervous system responsible for? |
- controls muscle movement/receives info from sensory receptors - transmits sensory info to CNS and receives info from CNS that directs muscle action |
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What is the endocrine system? |
- one of the body's major information systems - instructs glands to release hormones into bloodstream - hormones carried to target organs in the body |
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What are glands? |
- organs in the body that produce substances such as hormones |
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what are hormones? |
- chemical substances that circulate the blood, only affecting target organs - produced in large qualities but disappear quickly |
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How does the endocrine system work? |
- works with nervous system to control vital bodily functions - acts more slowly but has widespread, powerful effects - glands produce hormones=secrete into blood=affects cells with specific receptors - most hormones affect several organs |
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What is the pituitary gland? |
- major endocrine gland - located in the brain - controls the release of hormones from other endocrine glands in the body |
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What are the major glands in the endocrine system? |
- pituitary - thyroid - parathyroid - adernal - ovaries - testes |
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What is the fight-or-flight response? |
- how an animal responds when stressed - body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight or flee the agressor |
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What is adrenaline? |
- hormone produced by adrenal glands for immediate stress response system - strong effect on cardiovascular system cells (increase heart rate) |
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What are the two main responses to stress? |
- acute (sudden) stress - chronic (ongoing) stress |
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Describe the body's response to acute stressors. |
- sympathetic nervous system triggered=prepares body for rapid action=sends signal to adrenal medulla=releases adrenaline into blood - causes physiological changes (heart rate up)=prepare body for fight-or-flight response - threat passes=parasympathetic nervous system dampens stress response |
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Describe the body's response to chronic stressors. |
- adrenaline subsides, hypothalamus actives HPA axis - hypothalamus releases chemical corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) into blood=keep sympathetic nervous system working - CRH cause pituitary gland to release ACTH)=transported in blood to adrenal glands - triggers adrenal cortex to release cortisol=effects body for fight-or-flight response - can be positive or negative (low immune response) |
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What are the evaluation points of the fight-or-flight response? |
W: Taylor: females stress response=protect themselves/young;protective alliances with women=different responses W: modern life=not needed=stress response repeatedly activated=cortisol suppresses immune response W: GRAY: first reaction=avoidance=focuses attention=look for new info=best response W: acute stress led to co-operation/ friendliness |
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What is a neuron? |
- building blocks of the nervous system - nerve cells that process/transmit messages through electrical/chemical signals - provide the nervous system's primary means of communication |
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What are the types of neuron? |
- sensory - relay - motor |
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What is a sensory neuron? |
- carry messages from the environment from the PNS to CNS - long dendrites/short axon |
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What is a relay neuron? |
- connect sensory neurons to motor/other relay neurons - short dendrite/short axons |
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What is a motor neuron? |
- connect CNS to effectors (muscles/gland) - short dendrites/long axon |
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What is the basic structure of all neurons? |
- cell body - dendrites - axon - myelin sheath - nodes of ranvier - terminal buttons |
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What are the characteristics of the cell body of a neuron? |
- aka soma, includes nucleus - contains genetic material of the cell |
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What are the characteristics of the dendrites of a neuron? |
- branch-like structures that stick out of the cell body - carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons to the cell body |
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What are the characteristics of the axon of a neuron? |
- carries impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neuron |
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What are the characteristics of the myelin sheath of a neuron? |
- fatty layer that covers the axon to protect it and speed up electrical transmission of the impulse - if it were continuous it would slow down the electrical impulse |
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What are the characteristics of the nodes of ranvier of a neuron? |
- gaps in the myelin sheath - speed up electrical transmission of electrical impulses by forcing them to 'jump' across the gaps along the axon |
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What are the characteristics of the terminal buttons of a neuron? |
- at the end of the axon - communicate with the next neuron in the chain across a gap called the synapse |
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In electrical transmission, how does the firing of a neuron occur? |
- neurons resting state=inside cell negatively charged compared to outside - neuron activated by stimulus=inside cell becomes positively charged for a second=action potential - creates electrical impulse that travels down axon towards the end of the neuron |
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What is synaptic transmission? |
- process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synapse that separates them |
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How are signals transmitted differently at different parts of the neuron? |
- signals within neurons transmitted electrically - signals between neurons transmitted chemically across synapse |
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How does synaptic transmission occur across synapses? |
- each neuron separated by the synapse - electrical impulse reaches end of neuron (presynaptic terminal)=triggers release of neurotransmitters from tiny sacs (synaptic vesicles) - crosses synapse=taken up by postsynaptic receptor site=chemical message converted into electrical impulse |
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What is a neurotransmitter? |
- brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles - relay signals across synapse from one neuron to another - divided in inhibitory/excitatory functions |
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What is excitation? |
- when a neurotransmitter (adrenaline) increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron - decreases likelihood that neuron will fire=pass electrical impulse |
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What is inhibition? |
- when a neurotransmitter (serotonin) increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron - decreases likelihood that neuron will fire=pass electrical impulse |
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What is the psychodynamic approach? |
- unconscious forces operate on the mind and direct behaviour |
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What is the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach? |
- part of the mind we are unaware of that directs our behaviour - contains disturbing memories which have been repressed |
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According to Freud, what is the structure of the personality? |
- the personality is composed of three parts - the Id, Ego and Superego |
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What is the Id as part of the psychodynamic approach? |
- made of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
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What is the ego as part of the psychodynamic approach? |
- balances the needs of the id and the superego |
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What is the superego as part of the psychodynamic approach? |
- moralistic - represents the ideal self (how we should be) |
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What are Freud's psychosexual stages as part of the psychodynamic approach? |
- children go through 5 developmental stages - each stages marked by a specific conflict to resolve - unresolved conflict leads to fixation - stuck; carries conflict to adulthood |
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What are the 5 psychosexual stages in order? |
- oral - anal - phallic - latency - genital |
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What is the oral stage in the psychodynamic approach? |
- 0 to 1 years old - pleasure from mouth - object of pleasure=mother's breast |
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What is the anal stage in the psychodynamic approach? |
- 1 to 3 years old
- pleasure from anus - object of pleasure=holding/expelling faeces |
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What is the phallic stage in the psychodynamic approach? |
- 3 to 5 years old - pleasure from genitalia - Oedipus/Electra comple |
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What is the latency stage in the psychodynamic approach? |
- earlier conflicts are repressed |
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What is the genital stage in the psychodynamic approach? |
- sexual desires conscious alongside the onset of puberty |
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What are defence mechanisms as part of the psychodynamic approach? |
- unconscious - ensure ego prevents us being overwhelmed by trauma - often involve distortion of reality - psychologically unhealthy in long term |
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What are the three defence mechanisms as part of the psychodynamic approach? |
Repression: forcing a distressing memory out the conscious mind Denial: Refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality Displacement: Transferring distressing feelings from source to substitute target |
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What are the evaluation points of the psychodynamic approach? |
- Explanatory power - The case study method - Untestable concepts - Practical Application - Psychic Determinism |
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What is the 'explanatory power' evaluation point of the psychodynamic approach? |
- huge influence on psychology - used to explain range of phenomena e.g gender/personality - draws attention to link between experiences and childhood |
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What is the 'case study method' evaluation point of the psychodynamic approach? |
- theory based on study of single individuals - can't make universal claims based on small sample - Freud's interpretations subjective - methods lack scientific rigour vs other approaches |
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What is the 'untestable concepts' evaluation point of the psychodynamic approach? |
- doesn't meet scientific criterion of falsification
- concepts unconscious - no empirical testing - pseudoscience rather than science |
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What is the 'practical application' evaluation point of the psychodynamic approach? |
- new form of therapy (psychoanalysis)=used in modern day - techniques to access unconscious=hypnosis/dream analysis - claimed success - criticised as inappropriate for schizophrenia |
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What is the 'psychic determinism' evaluation point of the psychodynamic approach? |
- Freud believed no such thing as an accident - always unconscious control - implies free will is an illusion=conflicts humanistic view |
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What is the humanistic theory? |
- emphasises the importance of subjective experience and people's capacity for self-determination |
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How does free will play a part in the humanistic approach? |
- humans make choices and are not determined by biological/external forces - reject scientific models that attempt to make general laws of behaviour |
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How does self-actualisation play a part in the humanistic approach? |
- desire to grow psychologically and fulfil your full potential - highest level on Maslow's hierarchy of needs - lower levels must be met before - personal growth=developing to become fulfilled and goal oriented |
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How did Maslow describe life using the humanistic approach? |
- a series of peaks where all deficiency needs are satisfied |
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What are the levels in Maslow's hierarchy of needs from bottom to top in the humanistic theory? |
- physiological needs - safety and security - love and belongingness - self-esteem - self-actualisatio |
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What is the self? |
- ideas/values that characterise you - includes perception/valuing of what you are/can do |
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What is congruence? |
- aim of Rogerian therapy - when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly match |
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According to Roger, how does personal growth occur in the humanistic approach? |
- a person's self concept must be congruent to the ideal - gap too big=incongruence=self-actualisation not possible |
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What is Roger's client centered therapy? |
- developed to help people cope with everyday living - issues of low self esteem have roots in childhood from lack of conditional love=conditions of worth - therapist role: provide clients unconditional love they didn't receiv |
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What is conditions of worth? |
- parent limits love of children - I'll only love you if.... |
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What are the evaluation point of the humanistic approach? |
- not reductionist - limited application - positive approach - untestable concepts - cultural bia |
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What is the 'not reductionist' evaluation point of the humanistic approach? |
- don't break up behaviour/experience;holistic - subjective experience only understood by considering whole person - consider human behaviour in real life context=high validity |
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What is the 'limited application' evaluation point of the humanistic approach? |
- Roger=therapy;Maslow=hierarchy explains motivation - little real world application - lacks sound evidence-based;loose set of abstract concepts |
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What is the 'positive approach' evaluation point of the humanistic approach? |
- promote positive image - Freud saw humans as slaves to their past - optimistic alternative - sees people as good, free to work to their potential |
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What is the 'untestable concepts' evaluation point of the humanistic approach? |
- vague ideas;abstract and difficult to test - self-actualisation/congruence can't be assessed empirically |
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What is the 'cultural bias' evaluation point of the humanistic approach? |
- central ideas: individual freedom, personal growth=individualist cultures - collectivist emphasise group needs/interdependence - approach can't be generalised to other cultures |
