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74 Cards in this Set
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Allegory |
Device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. Example: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis is a religious allegory with Asian as Christ and Edmund as Judas. |
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Alliteration |
Repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not used frequently in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage. Example: "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers." |
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Allusion |
A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. Example: "It is raining so hard, I hope it doesn't rain for 40 days and 40 nights." This makes a reference to the biblical story of Noah and the ark he built. He was told by God that it would rain for 40 days and 40 nights and flood the land. |
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Ambiguity |
The multiple meansings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage. Example: "I rode a black horse in red pajamas." |
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Anadiplosis |
The repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause. Example: "Fear leads to anger, anger leads to hate, hate leads to suffering." -Yoda |
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Analogy |
A similarity or comparison between two different things or or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging, Example: "Life is like a race. The one who keeps running wins the race and the one who stops to catch a breath loses." |
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Anaphora |
Example: "It was the best of times; it was the worse of times." |
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Anecdote |
A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person. Example: "What is that? Bells, dogs again! Is it a dream? I sob and cry. See! The door opens, fur-clad men Rush to my rescue; frail am I; Feeble and dying, dazed and glad. There is the pistol where it dropped. “Boys, it was hard — but I’m not mad. . . . Look at the clock — it stopped, it stopped. Carry me out. The heavens smile. See! There’s an arch of gold above. Now, let me rest a little while — Looking to God and Love . . .and Love . . ." (Excerpt from "Death in the Arctic" by Robert W. Service |
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Antecdent |
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. Example: "When children are happy, they clap to express their pleasure." |
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Aphorism |
A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point. Example: "The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones." -William Faulkner |
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Apostrophe |
A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. Example: William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour:/ England hath need of thee." |
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Atmosphere |
The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood. Example: "The woman raised her hands and stared at them; stared through them.Her voice was soft but tense. “Blood on his hands.” Her own hands were clean and pale." (An Unspoken Hunger by Ter |
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Clause |
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a completethought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and mustbe accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the authorsubordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.
Example: Dependent Clause: "When the president arrives" Independent Clause: "Jim read a book, he really enjoyed the book." |
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Colloquial/Colloquialism |
The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing,colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.
Examples: Go bananas: go insane or be very angry |
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Coherence |
A principle demanding that the parts of any composition be arranged so that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible. Words, phrases, clauses within the sentence; and sentences, paragraphs, and chapters in larger pieces of writing are the units that, by their progressive and logical arrangement, make for coherence. Example: "My favorite color is blue. I'm calm and relaxed. In the summer I lie on the grass and look up." |
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Conceit |
A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilarobjects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.
Example: “Thou counterfeitst a bark, a sea, a wind; For still thy eyes, which I may call the sea, Do ebb and flow with tears; the bark thy body is, Sailing in this salt flood; the winds, thy sighs; Who, raging with thy tears, and they with them, Without a sudden calm, will overset Thy tempest-tossed body.” (Romeo and Juliet Act 3 Scene 5) |
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Connotation |
The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Example: A dove implies peace and gentility. |
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Denotation |
The strict, literal, dictonary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude or color. Example: A dog is used to suggest shamelessness or an ugly face. |
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Diction |
Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, oreffectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal,ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined withsyntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style.
Example: “Busy old fool, unruly Sun, Why dost thou thus,Through windows, and through curtains, call on us? Must to thy motions lovers’ seasons run? Saucy pedantic wretch,” ("The Sun Rising," by John Donne |
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Didactic |
From the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of a moral or ethical principles. Example: “Know then thyself, presume not God to scanThe proper study of Mankind is Man.Placed on this isthmus of a middle state,A Being darkly wise, and rudely great:With too much knowledge for the Sceptic side,With too much weakness for the Stoic’s pride, He hangs between; in doubt to act, or rest; In doubt to deem himself a God, or Beast; In doubt his mind or body to prefer; Born but to die, and reasoning but to err; Alike in ignorance, his reason such,Whether he thinks too little, or too much;” ("Essay on Man," by Alexander Pope |
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Epistrophe |
The opposite of anaphors, repetition at the end of sucessive clauses. Example: "They saw no evil, they spoke no evil, and they heard no evil." |
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Euphemism |
From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generallyunpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or toadd humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.
Example: "You are becoming a little thin on top." (bald) |
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Exposition |
In essays, one of the four chief types of composition, the others being argumentation, description, and narration. The purpose of exposition is the explain something. In drama, the exposition is the introductory material, which creates the tone, gives the setting, and introduces the characters and conflict. Example: "Once upon a time, there were three bears. There was a Daddy Bear, who was very big, a Mama Bear, who was middle-sized, and a Baby Bear, who was very small. They all lived together in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. Their favorite breakfast was porridge. One morning, after they made their porridge, Daddy Bear said, ‘Let’s go for walk in the woods until it cools.’ Mama Bear and Baby Bear liked the idea, so off they went. While they were away, a little girl named Goldilocks came walking through the forest and smelled the porridge…" ("The Three Little Bears") |
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Extended Metaphor |
A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.
Example: “But soft! What light through yonder window breaks?It is the East, and Juliet is the sun!Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,Who is already sick and pale with grief.” (Romeo and Juliet) |
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Figurative Language |
Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid
Example: Personification: Giving something human qualities. "The stuffed bear smiled as the little boy hugged him close." |
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Figure of Speech |
A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech includeapostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.
Example: Anaphora: uses a specific clause at the beginning of each sentence or point to make a statement. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair." (King John, II, I by William Shakespeare) |
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Generic Conventions |
This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example,they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam,try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention.
Example: Action movies are characterized by explosions. |
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Genre |
The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama.However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genresthemselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies,autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy,comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the followinggenres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.There may be fiction or poetry.
Example: Drama is a form of text that is performed in front of an audience. It is also called a play. |
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Homily |
This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involvingmoral or spiritual advice.
Example: There is a fable that tells of three apprentice devils who were coming to earth to finish their apprenticeship. They were talking with Satan, the chief of the devils, about their plans to tempt and to ruin humanity. The first said, “I will tell them there is no God.” But Satan said, “That will not delude many, for they know there is a God… The most dangerous of all delusions is that there is plenty of time.” (Deacon Winton DeRosia’s homily from Bible—24:42-51: Matthew) |
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Hyperbole |
A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is “overshoot.”)Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony.
Example: "Your suitcase weighs a ton!" |
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Imagery |
The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physicallevel, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader anddeeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagerywhile also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may usecomplex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition,this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an authorcreates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.
Example: “Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft,And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.” ("In the Autumn" By John Keats) |
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Inference/Infer |
To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for aninference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If aninference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is notinferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation – negative or positive – of the choices.
Example: “It was after we started with Gatsby toward the house that the gardener saw Wilson’s body a little way off in the grass, and the holocaust was complete.” (The Great Gatsby) |
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Invective |
An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. Example: “I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth.” (Jonathan Swift) |
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Irony/Ironic |
The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears tobe and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types ofirony used in language.
Example: "The butter is as soft as a marble piece." |
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Loose Sentence |
A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period was placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. Generally loose sentences create loose style. Example: "I went to the movies yesterday, bought candy, and shopped at the mall." |
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Metaphor |
A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other,suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, andmeaningful.
Example: "The assignment was a breeze." |
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Metonymy |
A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a figure of speechin which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.
Example: " A news releasethat claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it tosignify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: “doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat.” Thesubstituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact." |
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Mood |
This term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. Example: "Joe eats too quickly." The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. Example: "If I were you, I'd get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. Example: "Shut the door!" The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning he prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere. Example: “The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on.” ("Pickwick Papers" By Charles Dickens) |
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Narrative |
The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events. Example: “Animal Farm” by George Orwell is a modern narrative example that aim at extending a writer’s political views. It is a form of narrative known as a political satire. It uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. |
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Onomatopoeia |
A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include suchwords as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, notethe effect.
Example: "The buzzing bee flew away." |
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Oxymoron |
From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparentlycontradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This termdoes not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Takenote of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.
Example: "Foolish Wisdom" |
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Paradox |
A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection containssome degree of truth or validity.
Example: Macbeth |
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Parallelism |
Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning “beside oneanother.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structuralsimilarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbalphrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst oftimes, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch ofincredulity....”) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract thereader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
Example: "Like father, like son." |
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Parody |
A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. Itexploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.)Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation.Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate thenuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don’t require knowledge ofthe original.
Example: Parody has entered our day-to-day life through hilarious parody movies that mimic famous blockbusters. “Vampire Sucks” parodies and pokes fun at “Twilight” which was a film adaptation of Stephanie Meyer’s novel “Twilight”. |
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Pedantic |
An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.
Example: Mr. Smith talked for the whole class period about the article about his experiment that he was having published in a magazine. His students yawned and fought off sleep as he bored them with the importance and extreme details of all the action steps of his experiment. |
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Periodic Sentence |
The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. Thisindependent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to addemphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.
Example: "After a long,bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport." |
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Personification |
A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects byendowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objectsappear more vivid to the reader.
Example: "Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn't it so?" |
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Point of View |
In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, andmany subdivisions within those.
Example: (1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narratorcan be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.(2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two mainsubdivisions to be aware of:a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions ofany or all charactersb. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only onecharacter, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze theauthor’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude. |
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Predicate Adjective |
One type of subject complement- an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject Example: "Children grow older every day." |
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Predicate Nominative |
A second type of subject complement- a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the suject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: "The tall boy has been our best basketball player." |
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Prose |
one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printerdetermines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.
Example: “Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show.” (David Copperfield – Charles Dickens) |
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Repetition |
The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause,sentence, or grammatical pattern.
Example: “My conscience hath a thousand several tongues,And every tongue brings in a several tale,And every tale condemns me for a villain.” (Richard III by William Shakespeare |
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Rhetor |
The speaker who uses elements of rhetoric effectively in oral or written test. Example: Upon approaching a cashier at the grocery store she asks, "Will you help starving children today by adding $3 to your grocery bill?" |
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Rhetoric |
From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, andpersuasively.
Example: “I am never ever going to rob anyone for you and never, never ever give in to your sinful wish.” |
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Rhetorical Modes |
This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. Thefour most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as “modes of discourse”) are as follows:
Example: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expositorytopics.(2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning,discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation havingan additional aim of urging some form of action.(3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the readercan picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptivewriting can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highlyemotional an subjective.(4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently usesthe tools of descriptive writing. |
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Sarcasm |
From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridiculesomeone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended toridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.
Example: “I didn’t attend the funeral, but I sent a nice letter saying I approved of it.” (Mark Twain) |
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Satire |
A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless ofwhether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose forwriting. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature,hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but good satire,often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.
Example: “Whether the nymph shall break Diana’s law,Or some frail china jar receive a flaw,Or stain her honor, or her new brocade” (Alexander Pope's "The Rape Of The Lock.") |
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Semantics |
The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, theirconnotations, and their relation to one another.
Example: "One man’s trash is another man’s treasure." |
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Style |
The consideration of style has two purposes:
Example: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and otherliterary devices. Some authors’ styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author.We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’spurpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc.(2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classificationand comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as theRenaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realistmovement. |
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Subject Complement |
The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, orcompletes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (thepredicate adjective). These are defined below:(1) the predicate nominative – a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like thepredicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.
Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star.movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts(2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb.It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren |
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Subordinate Clause
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Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases ormodifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a completethought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) tocomplete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although,because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that.
Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers. Bold phrase = subordinate clause |
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Syllogism |
From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductivesystem of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second called “minor”) thatinevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:
Example: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific ideafirst (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”). |
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Symbol/Symbolism |
Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is somethingconcrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract. However, symbolsand symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:
Example: (1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawnsymbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).(2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a crossor Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones forpirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are moregenerally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness.On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful inrepresenting that abstraction. |
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Syntax |
The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you candifferentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple choicesection of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essaysection, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.
Example: “Thee, Shepherd, thee the woods and desert caves,With wild thyme and the gadding vine o’ergrown,And all their echoes mourn." (Lycidas) |
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Theme |
The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but innonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in expository or argumentative writing.
Example: Iliad and Odyssey by Homer, War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy, Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell and A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway. (All show a theme of war in ancient times) |
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Thesis |
In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’sopinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively,and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.
Example: "It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife." (Narrative Thesis Example) |
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Tone |
Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determinein spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help inidentifying an author’s tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal,ornate, sardonic, somber, etc.
Example: Father: “We are going on a vacation.”Son: “That’s great!!!” (Tone is cheerful) |
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Transition |
A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository andargumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitionalwords or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on thecontrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.
Example: We wanted to leave at 8:00. However, Mike arrived too late. |
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Trope |
an artful variation from expected modes of expression of thoughts and ideas, a figure of speech involving a "turn" or change of sense- a use of the words in a sense other than its proper or literal one. Example: common types of troupes include: metaphor, synecdoche, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, litotes, irony, oxymoron, onomatopoeia, etc. ("He’s been here hundreds of times." -Hyperbole.) |
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Understatement |
the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect canfrequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.
Example: Jonathan Swift’s A Taleof a Tub: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.” |
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Undertone |
An attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones. Example: William Blake's "The Chimney Sweeper" from the Songs of Innocence has a grim undertone. |
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Unreliable Narrator |
An untrustworthy or naive commentator on events and characters in a story. Example: Huck Finn is one of American literature's most famous of this type. |
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Wit |
in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, whilesuggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language thatmakes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speedof understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulatean answer that demanded the same quick perception.
Example: "At a point where one's mental resources are exhausted; at a loss as to what to do." |
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Zeugma |
a trope, one word (usually a noun or main verb) governs two other words not related in meaning. Example: "He maintained a business and his innocence." |
