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298 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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organic molecules
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contain carbon
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saccharides
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carbohydrates
disaccharide- 2 - sucrose, maltose, lactose monosaccharide-- one-- glucose, fructose polysaccharide-- many-- starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin |
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triglycerides
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3 fatty acid and glycerol
lipid |
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phospholipid
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tryglyceride but replace one fatty acid with a phosphate group (has P)
phosphate group=hydrophilic head fatty acids=hydrophobic tails |
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steroid
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lipid made of 4 carbon rings
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Structural proteins
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ex silk in spider webs and keratin in hair
structure |
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storage protein
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ex zein in corn seeds
storage |
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transport proteins
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in membranes to transport materials in and out of cell
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defensive proteins
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protection against foreign substances
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enzymes
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regulate rate of chemical reactions
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peptide bonds
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bonds between amino acids
chain of these is a polypeptide, or a peptide |
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amino acids
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make up proteins
20 of them central carbon, amino group, and carboxyl group bond with each other by hydrogen bonding |
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primary structure of protein
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order of amino acids
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secondary structure of protein
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3D shape that results from hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids
alpha helix, beta pleated sheet |
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tertiary structure of a protein
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additional 3D shaping
globular proteins caused by hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, disulfide bridge/bond, hydrophobic effect |
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bonds in polypeptide chain
tertiary structure |
disulfide bridge--helps maintain turns in amino acid chain
hydrogen and ionic bonds--between R groups of amino acids |
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quaternary structure of protein
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more than one peptide chain bonded toegther
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nucleotides
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nitrogen base, 5 carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
DNA and RNA hydrogen bonding types of nucleotides--adenine, thymine, uracil, guanine, cytosine |
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DNA
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deoxyribonucleic acid
adenine thymine, guanine cytosine deoxyribose double stranded |
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RNA
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ribose
codes for proteins adenine uracil, guanine cytosine single stranded |
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catabolic
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break down
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anabolic
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build up
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cofactors
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non protein molecules that assist enzymes
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coenzymes
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organic cofactors
usually accept or donate electrons |
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inorganic cofactors
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inorganic cofactors
metal ions |
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ATP
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RNA adenine nucleotide with 2 additional phosphates
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phosphorylation
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ADP combines with a phosphate group to create ATP
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allosteric activator
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induces active form of enzyme
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allosteric inhibiter
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induces inactive form of enzyme
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feedback inhibition
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product of series of reactions acts as allosteric inhibitor for the series
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competitive inhibition
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mimics substrate and occupies active site so enzyme becomes inactive
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noncompetitive inhibitors
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binds to enzyme at site other than active site and alters the shape of the enzyme, making the enzyme inactive
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cooperativity
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enzyme becomes more receptive of substrates after one substrate attaches to active site
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reverse reaction
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in problems with series of metabolic reactions
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exergonic
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exothermal
release energy |
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endergonic
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endothermic
absorb energy |
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hydrophobic
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nonpolar
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hydrophilic
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polar
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glycosidic linkage
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joins two sugar molecules to form a disaccharide
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plasma membrane/cell membrane
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--double phospholipid membrane (lipid bilayer)
- non polar hydrophobic tails--inside -polar hydrophilic heads- outside - proteins scattered in it - fluid mosaic model |
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peripheral proteins
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attach loosely to inner or outer surface of cell membrane
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integral proteins
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extend into cell membrane
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transmembrane proteins
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span across cell membrane, appearing at both surfaces
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fluid mosaic model
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mosaic nature of scatter proteins within the flexible matrix of phospholipid molecules
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channel proteins
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provide open passageways through cell membrane for certain hydrophilic molecules
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ion channels
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allow passage of ions across cell membrane
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gated channels
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ion channels in nerve and muscle cells that open and cose in response to electrical or chemical stimuli
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porins
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proteins that allow the passage of certain ions and small polar molecules through cell membrane
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aquaporins
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increase passage rate of water through cell membrane
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carrier proteins
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bind to specific molecules and transfer them across cell membrane after undergoing a change in shape
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transport proteins
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use ATP to transport materials across membrane
-active transport - NA-K pump |
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Na-K Pump
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active transport
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Recognition Proteins
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gives each cell type a unique identification--provides for distinction between cells
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adhesion proteins
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attached to neighboring cells or give cell stability
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receptor proteins
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provide binding sites for hormones and other trigger molecules--activates cell response--in cell membrane--cell communication
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cholesterol
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provide rigidity to cell membrane
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nucleus
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contains chromatin normally, during cell division becomes chromosomes
- nucleosomes --nucleoli -nuclear envelope |
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nuclear envelope
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2 phospholipid bilayers
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chromatin
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thread like DNA
- not during division |
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chromosomes
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condensed chromatin during cell division
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histones
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DNA coils around histones to form nucleosomes
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nucleosomes
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bundles of DNA formed by histones
in nucleus |
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nucleoli
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in nucleus
build ribosomes |
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ribosomes
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manufactured by nucleoli in nucleus
build proteins from amino acid |
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endoplasmic reticulum
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rough ER--creates glycoproteins
smooth ER-- synthesis of lipids and hormones, break down toxins |
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Golgi apparatus
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modify and package proteins and lipids into vesicles, which release them to outside environment
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vesicles
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sacs that carry materials from golgi to cell membrane
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lysosomes
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sacs containing digestive enzymes
only animal cells |
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peroxisomes
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break down various substances
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mitochondria
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aerobic respiration
ATP from carbs |
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chloroplasts
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photosynthesis
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microtubules
filaments(micro and intermediate) |
protein fibers
shape and movement of cytoskeleton |
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cytoskeleton
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internal structure of cytoplasm
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spindle fibers
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guides the movement of chromosomes during cell division
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centrioles
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microtubule organizing centers
gives rise to microtubules that make up spindle apparatus |
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centrosomes
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pair of centrioles enclosed in a centrosome
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basal bodies
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base of flagellum and cilium and organize their developement
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food vacuoles
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-receive nutrients
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storage vacuoles
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in plants
store starch, pigments, and toxins |
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transport vesicles
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movement of materials between organelles or organelles and cell membrane
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central vacuoles
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plant cells
rigidity of cell by putting pressure on cell wall--exerting turgor |
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cell walls
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plants, fungi, protists, bacteria
cellulose in plant and some fungi chitin in some fungi and others peptidogylcan in bacteria support and structure for cell |
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anchoring junctions
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protein attachments between animal cells for mechanical stablity
desmosomes |
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desmosomes
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anchoring junction
mechanical stability |
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tight junctions
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animal cells
passage of materials |
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communicating junctions
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allow transfer of signals
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gap junctions
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animal cells
allow communication between cells by electrical signals |
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plasmodesmata
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plant cells
material exchange |
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differences between plant and animal cells
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plant--cell wall, choloroplast, central vacuoles
animal--lysosomes, centrioles, cholesterol |
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prokaryotes
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plasma membrane, a DNA molecules, ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell wall
- no nucleus |
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hypertonic
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higher concentration of SOLUTES
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hypotonic
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lower concentration of SOLUTES
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isotonic
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equal concentration of SOLUTES
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simple diffusion
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net movement of substances from high concentration to low
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osmosis
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diffusion of water molecules
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dialysis
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diffusion of solutes across membrane
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plasmolysis
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movement of water out of cell resulting in collapse of cell
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facilitated diffusion
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diffusion of solutes or water through channel proteins to increase rate
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active transport
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movement of solutes against concentration gradient by use of ATP
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exocytosis
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vesicles fusing with cell membrane and releasing contents to outside
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endocytosis
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cell membrane engulfs substance and brings it into cell by vesicle
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated |
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phagocytosis
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type of endocytosis when undissolved materials are wrapped around by membrane and engulfed, forming a phagocytic vesicle
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pinocytosis
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dissolved substances enter cell by cell folding inward to form channel--channel closes off and forms a vesicle surrounding the liquid
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receptor mediated endocytosis
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form of pinocytosis where specific molecules bind to specialized receptors
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ligands
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specific molecules that attach to specialized receptors
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cellular respiration general formula
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glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + ATP
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aerobic respiration
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glycolysis, Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation (ETC)
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glycolysis
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1. 2 ATP added
2. 2 NADH formed 3. 4 ATP produced 4. 2 pyruvates formed in cytoplasm |
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Krebs Cycle
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1. pyruvate to acetyl CoA---produces NADH and CO2 as well
2. Krebs Cycle--3 NADH, 1 FADH, 1 ATP, CO2 mitochondria--matrix |
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NADH
FADH |
energy containing coenzyme
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
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-ETC
- NADH and FADH release electrons which phosphorylate ADP to ATP - produces H2O and ATP -mitochondria--cristae |
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chemiosmosis
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ATP generation by proton concentration gradient
1. Krebs cycle produces NADH and FADH 2. Electrons removed from NADH and FADH 3. H+ ions (protons) are transported to intermembrane compartment 4. creates a pH and electrical gradient 5. ATP synthase generates ATP |
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substrate level phosphorylation
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energy is in phosphate group and both its energy and phosphate group are transferred to ADP to form ATP
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oxidative phosphorylation
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phosphate group added to ADP to form ATP but energy comes from electrons in ETC
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Anaerobic respiration
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in absence of oxygen
lactic acid and alcohol glycolysis goal is to replenish NAD+ so glycolysis can happen ---cytoplasm |
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role of oxygen in aerobic respiration
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to take hydrogens from NADH so NAD+ is produced and can start glycolysis
--becomes water |
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Alcohol Fermentation
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plants, fungi, yeast, bacteria
first glycolysis, then... 1. pyruvate to acetaldehyde and CO2 2. acetaldehyde to ethanol and NAD+ 3. glycolysis continues with NAD+ |
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Lactic Acid Fermentation
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humans, mammals
1. glycolysis 2. pyruvate to lactic acid and NAD+ 3. glycolysis |
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general equation for photosynthesis
and steps |
CO2 + water + light = glucose + oxygen
chloropast light dependent reaction(cyclic or non cyclic) to calvin cycle to ETC |
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Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
Light Reaction |
1. Photosystem II--electrons excited
2. primary electron acceptor 3. ETC 4. Phosphorylation--makes ATP 5. Photosystem I-- electrons energized again and passed to new primary electron acceptor 6. NADPH-- energy containing coenzyme 7. splitting of water--replaces lost electrons and gives H to NADPH chloroplast--thylakoid membrane |
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Cyclic Phosphorylation
Light Reaction |
uses only photosystem I to only produce ATP
chloroplast-thylakoid membrane |
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Calvin Cycle
dark reaction, light independent reaction |
fixes CO2 to produce glucose
C3 photosynthesis 1. carboxylation-uses rubisco 2. reduction 3. regeneration 4. carbohydrate synthesis chloroplast--stroma takes CO2 and energy from ATP and NADPH to produce glucose |
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photorespiration
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rubisco fixes oxygen as well as carbon dioxide--reduces efficieincy of fixing CO2 and wastes energy
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C4 photosynthesis
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converts CO2 to malate, moves it to bundle sheath cells where there is little oxygen, and then converts back to CO2 so photosynthesis occurs without oxygen present
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CAM photosynthesis
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at night stomata open and bring in CO2 and convert it to malic acid
during the day stomata close and malic acid is turn into CO2 so calvin cycle can occur reduces water loss |
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diploid
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2 copies of chromosomes
homologous pairs |
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haploid
monoploid |
1 copy of chromosome
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number of human chromosomes, homologous pairs, and chromatids
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46 chromosomes
23 homologous pairs 92 chromatids |
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Interphase
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longest part of cell division
G1--growth S--growth and duplication of DNA--chromosomes become double stranded G2- growth + prep for cell division |
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compare chromosomes of daughter cells and cells in division (for somatic cells)
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daughter cells are diploid with single stranded chromosomes, while somatic cells in division are diploid with double stranded chromosomes for S phase of interphase
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Prophase
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1. nucleoli disappear and chromatin condenses into chromosomes
2. nuclear envelope breaks down 3. mitotic spindle assembled |
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Metaphase
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metaphase plate--between two poles of spindle
chromosomes line up in center of cell and sister chromatids separate |
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how to count number of chromosomes
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count the number of centromeres---a chromosomes can be double or single stranded
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Anaphase
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sister chromatids (chromosomes) pulled towards opposite ends of cell by spindle
at end, each pole has a complete set of single stranded chromosomes--same number as parent cell |
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Telophase
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nuclear division
1. nuclear envelope develops around each pole, forming two nuclei 2. chromosomes disperse into chromatin 3. nucleoli reappear |
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cytokinesis
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divides the cytoplasm to form two cells
cell plate in plants, cleavage furrow in animals |
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cell plate
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during cytokinesis in plants, becomes the cell membrane for each daughter cell. cell walls develop between the membranes
secreted by golgi |
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cleavage furrow
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animal cells
groove formed as daughter cells split in cytokinesis |
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Meiosis I
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-similar to mitosis except crossing over occurs and 2 haploid daughter cells produced with double stranded chromosomes
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Meiosis II
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same as mitosis except done for each daughter cell from meiosis I, producing 4 haploid daughter cells with single stranded chromosomes
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Prophase I
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1. nucleolus disappears, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle apparatus appear (just like mitosis)
2. homologous chromosomes pair--synapsis--tetrads -crossing over chiasmata |
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synapsis
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homologous chromosomes pair during prophase I of meiosis to form tetrads
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tetrads
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a group of four chromatids (2 homologous chromosomes)
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chiasmata
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sites where crossing over occurs, close relation between non sister chromatids of tetrads
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crossing over
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--genetic variation
- genetic material exchanged between non sister chromatids of a tetrad in Prophase I |
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Metaphase I
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homologous chromosomes spread across the metaphase plate
(line up in center) |
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Anaphase I
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in tetrad, one double stranded homologous chromosome to one end, other to other end (the chromosomes forming tetrad split)
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Telophase I
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nuclear membrane reforms, each pole becomes a daughter cell with a haploid number of double stranded chromosomes
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Prophase II
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no crossing over, same as mitosis
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Metaphase II
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chromosomes align in center, same as mitosis except half the number of chromosomes
(chromosomes are double stranded) |
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Anaphase II
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chromosomes pulled apart--one chromatid towards each end of cell
-same as mitosis except half number of chromosomes |
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Telophase II
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same as mitosis, nuclear envelope reappears and cytokinesis occurs
--results in four haploid daughter cells |
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zygote
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diploid cell produced by fertilization (fusing of sperm and egg)
grows into multicellular organism by mitosis diploid--has homologous pairs--one homologue chromosomes from each parent |
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spores
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produced during meiosis
plants haploid cells that divide by mitosis to become multicellular haploid structure (gametophyte) |
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gametophyte
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haploid multicellular structure produced by spores
-produces gametes by mitosis b/c is haploid already |
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sporophyte
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fusion of gametes from gametophyte, then mitosis to produce the diploid multicellular structure (sporophyte)
--meiosis produced haploid spores to begin cycle again |
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alternation of generation
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gametophyte and sporophyte stages are multicellular
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genetic variation due to...
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-crossing over
- independent assortment of homologues - random joining of gametes |
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independent assortment of homologues
(law of independent assortment) |
--during metaphase I each tetrad separates into 2 double stranded chromosomes independently of other tetrads
-Mendelian genetics --different for each tetrad which chromosomes will go to which pole |
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random joining of gametes
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during fertilization it is random which sperm fertilizes egg
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surface to volume ration
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limits size of cells b/c at certain size, inner part of cell can't reach outside fast enough
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genome to volume ratio
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at certain size there is not enough genetic material to regulate cellular activities
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checkpoints for division
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if conditions are not right cell will not divide
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cyclin-dependent kinases
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influence cell division by activating proteins that regulate cell division
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growth factors
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receptors that receive signals to stimulate cell growth
ex. sign from damaged cells stimulate other cells to divide |
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density dependent inhibition
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stop dividing when cell density in area gets too high
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anchorage dependence
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cells usually only divide when attached to external surface like a neighboring cell
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multiplication rule
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multiply probabilities of each event
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gene
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genetic material on chromosomes that contains the instructions for a particular trait
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allel
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one of several varieties of a gene
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locus
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location of a gene on a chromosomes
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homologous chromosomes
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a pair of chromosomes that have the same genetic info gene for gene---each parent contributes one of the chromosomes in pair
may have different alleles |
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law of segregation
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Mendelian genetics
one member of each chromosome pair goes to opposite pole so gametes only have one copy of each chromosomes (and allele) |
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test cross
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to see if dominant phenotype is homozygous dominant or heterozygous dominant
--cross it with homozygous recessive --homo. dom. will produce all phenotype dominant -hetero. dom. will produce half dominant, half recessive phenotypes |
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incomplete dominance
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blending
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codominance
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both traits are shown...no blending
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multiple alleles
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ex human blood type
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epistasis
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one gene affects the phenotypic expression of a second gene
ex. pigmentation--one gene codes for whether you have pigment or not, and one gene codes for the color of pigment---if first gene codes for no pigment, second gene not expressed |
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pleiotropy
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single gene has more than one phenotypic expression
ex. gene for round/wrinkled seeds in pea plants influences phenotypic expression of starch metabolism and water absorption ex. sickle cell anemia-- if you have the trait it affects other things |
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polygenic inheritance
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many genes influencing one phenotype
continuous variation/bell curve ex height in humans |
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linked genes
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genes that are on same chromosomes and don't segregate independently b/c physically connected
inherited together -ex genes A and B are inherited together -perfect linkage--no crossing over -crossing over usually occurs |
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DNA polymerase reads in what direction and makes in what direction...
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reads 3-5
new strand is made antiparallel-- 5-3 |
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perfect linkage
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no crossing over
- expect 1/2 of offspring to be like one parent, 1/2 to be like other parent -only gametes with parental phenotypes |
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independent assortment ratio
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expect 1:1:1:1 of the four types of possible gamete phenotypes
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linkage with crossing over ratio
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expect 2 big groups--parental phenotype
expect 2 small groups--recombinant phenotypes |
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linkage map
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portrayal of sequence of genes on a chromosome
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recombination mapping
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farther apart = higher crossover rate
map distance = crossover percent # of progeny that crossed over/total number of progeny = crossover % |
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autosomes
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non sex chromosomes
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sex-linked genes
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genes on the X chromosomes
men cannot pass the gene onto sons b/c to son they give Y chromosome - men have increased risk of trait b/c they only get one allele for it, which is expressed ex. hemophilia |
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Barr body
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an inactivated X chromosomes as a result of X-inactivation
--only the active X chromosomes will express the trait ex calico cats |
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Nondisjunction
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failure of one or more chromosome pairs or chromatids of a single chromosome (sister chromatids) to properly separate during meiosis or mitosis
--produces gametes with extra or missing chromosomes --error during anaphase I- failure of homologous chromosomes to separate --during anaphase II- failure of sister chromatids to separate - can happen in mitosis -polyploidy |
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mosaicism
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nondisjunction during mitosis of embryo
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polyploidy
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all chromosomes under meiotic non disjunction and gametes have twice the number of chromosomes
--polyploidy zygote can form in the polyploidy gamete is fertilized by another polyploidy gamete |
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point mutation
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single nucleotide in DNA sequence is wrong
- substitution, deletion, insertion |
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aneuploidy
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extra or missing chromosomes, usually due to non disjunction
--Down syndrome--trisomy 21 -Turner syndrome- non disjunction of sex chromosomes causes XO (no second chromosomes) |
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duplication
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segment of chromosomes is repeated on same chromosome
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inversion
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chromosomes segment rearranged on same chromosome
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translocation
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segment of chromosomes moved to another chromosome
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mRNA
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provides instructions for assembling amino acid--tells tRNA what amino acids to bring
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tRNA
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delivers amino acids to ribosomes for assembling amino acids into a polypeptide chain
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rRNA
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combines with proteins to form ribosomes
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semiconservative replication
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when DNA replicates, each new double stranded DNA molecule has 1 old strand, 1 new strand
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helicase
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unwinds DNA for replication
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topoisomerases
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prevents knots and removes twists from double stranded DNA as helicase unwinds the double helix
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Okazaki fragments
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short segments of complementary DNA on the lagging strand
--joined by DNA ligase |
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DNA ligase
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connects Okazaki fragments
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primase
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lays down an RNA primer to start DNA replication b/c DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to an already existing complementary strand
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telomeres/ telomeres
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ends of eukaryotic chromosomes
enzyme that builds short segments off of telomere to prevent DNA loss |
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codon/anticodon
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codon--3 adjacent nucleotides on mRNA
anticodon--on tRNA and base pairs with codon on mRNA |
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Transcription
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initiation, elongation, termination
--formation of mRNA from a DNA template |
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initiation--transcription
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RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter region on the DNA and begins to unzip DNA into 2 strands
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promoter region
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where RNA polymerase attaches to begin transcription
- TATA--sequence of promoter |
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elongation--transcription
give direction |
RNA polymerase unzips DNA and assembles RNA nucleotides using one DNA strand as a template
-occurs in the 5-3 direction |
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termination--transcription
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when RNA reaches a special sequence of nucleotides that serve as a termination point, transcription stops
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RNA splicing
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removes nucleotide segments from mRNA
-removes introns |
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introns
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non coding regions of transcribed DNA
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exons
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sequences of transcribed DNA that code for a polypeptide
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Translation
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--create polypeptide chains from mRNA template
--initiation, elongation, termination |
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initiation--translation
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ribosome and tRNA attach to mRNA---tRNA attaches with start codon methionine (AUG)
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elongation--translation
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tRNA's attach amino acids to ribosome/mRNA template
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termination--translation
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ribosomes encounters stop codon and translation ends
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translocation
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tRNA moves from A site to P site during translation
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point mutation
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single nucleotide error
substitution, deletion, insertion, frameshift |
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frameshift mutation
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deletion or insertion of nucleotide--everything after that is changed
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deletion
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nucleotide is deleted from sequence
frameshift |
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substitution
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incorrect nucleotide in place of correct one--only affects that codon
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insertion
|
insertion of an extra nucleotide
frameshift |
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silent mutation
|
codon still codes for same amino acid
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missense mutation
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new codon codes for different amino acid
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nonsense mutation
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new codon is a stop codon
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mutagens
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radiation or chemicals that cause mutation
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carcinogens
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mutagens that cause uncontrolled cell growth
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proofreading
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DNA polymerase checks for errors and replaces incorrect nucleotides with the right ones
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mismatch repair
|
enzymes repair errors that aren't caught by DNA polymerase
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excision repair
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enzymes remove nucleotides damaged by mutagens
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euchromatin
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DNA loosely bound to nucleosomes
--being actively transcribed |
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heterochromatin
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nucleosomes tightly compacted--DNA in inactive
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transposons
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have the effect of a mutation
genes that jump to different location on same chromosome, or to new chromosome |
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phage
|
virus that attacks bacteria
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virus
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has a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, but not both
also has a capsid that surround nucleic acid, and sometimes an envelope around the capsid |
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capsid
|
protein coat surrounding nucleic acid of virus
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lytic cycle
|
--replication of virus by virus inserting its DNA into host cell and forcing host to produce viruses, killing host
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retroviruses
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have RNA and use reverse transcriptase to make DNA complement of their RNA
ex HIV |
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lysogenic cycle
|
viral DNA is temporarily incorporated into host cell's DNA
--called prophage in this stage --a stimulus will cause it to enter lytic cycle |
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prophage
|
viral DNA in lysogenic cycle
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bacteria
|
prokaryotes, no nucleus, no specialized organelles
a chromosome in shape of circular DNA molecule --reproduces by binary fission |
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binary fission
|
bacterial cell reproduces by chromosomes replication and then cell division into 2 cells each with 1 chromosome
--have plasmids |
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plasmids
|
circular DNA outisde chromosomes
carry beneficial but non essential genes --replicate independently |
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conjugation
|
DNA exchange between bacteria
creates variation ex F plasmid, R plasmid |
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F plasmid
|
transferred by conjugation
enables bacteria to produce pili |
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R plasmid
|
transferred by conjugation
provides bacteria with resistance to antibiotics |
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transduction
|
creates variation in bacteria
new DNA is introduced to bacteria by a virus---viral DNA takes up bacterial DNA during lytic cycle--if that virus infects another bacterial, that bacteria can get DNA from the other bacteria |
|
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transformation
|
bacterial variation by absorbing DNA from their surrounding
ex mice experiment |
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operon
|
unit of DNA that controls transcription of a gene
|
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promoter
|
region of operon--sequence of DNA to which RNA polymerase attaches to begin transcription
|
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operator
|
region of operon that can block the action of RNA polymerase if the operator is occupied by a repressor protein
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structural genes
|
contain DNA sequences that code for enzymes
--in operon |
|
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regulatory gene
|
--operon
--produces repressor proteins and activator proteins |
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repressor proteins
|
occupy promoter region of operon to stop RNA polymerase from transcription
|
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activator proteins
|
assist the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter region
|
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lac operon
|
--catabolic
- inducible operon |
|
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trp operon
|
-anabolic
-repressible operon |
|
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inducible operon/enzyme
|
always off unless substance to break down is around--then it is induced to being transcription by the substance binding with repressor protein to make it inactive
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repressible operon/enzyme
|
always on unless substance does not need to be produced, in which case the product binds with the repressor protein to make it active and stop transcription
|
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regulatory proteins
|
repressors and activators that influence if RNA polymerase with attach to promoter region
|
|
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nucleosome packing/DNA methylation
|
addition of methyl groups makes DNA inactive and won't transcribe
|
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chromatin packing
|
tighter it is packed the harder it is to transcribe
|
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RNA interference
|
blocks transcription or translation or degrades existing mRNA by producing double stranded RNA
|
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recombinant DNA
|
contains DNA segments of genes from difference sources
|
|
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vectors and cloning vectors
|
carries foreign DNA into a cell
--ex plasmid -must be cut with same restriction enzyme as foreign cell DNA -cloning vector must have prokaryotic promoter upstream of eukaryotic gene insertion site |
|
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ubiquitine
|
breaks down final form of protein to render translation ineffective
|
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restriction enzymes
|
cut DNA--cut at specific recognition sequences
|
|
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sticky ends
|
unpaired extensions on ends of double stranded DNA when using restriction enzyme
|
|
|
gel electrophoresis
|
DNA fragments separated by size
|
|
|
RFLP's
restriction fragment length polymorphisms |
comparisons in size of DNA fragments
ex compare crime scene to suspect (DNA fingerprinting) |
|
|
complementary DNA (cDNA)
|
--because bacteria can't remove introns from DNA, we produce cDNA because bacteria can read it
-produce it by taking mRNA and using reverse transcriptase |
|
|
PCR
polymerase chain reaction |
uses DNA polymerase to make a lot of copies of DNA fragments
1- nucleotides, primers, DNA, and DNA polymerase 2-heat it to separate strands 3- cool it- primers attach and DNA polymerase copies |
|
|
prions
|
messed up proteins that mess up brain proteins
--causes mad cow |
|
|
Griffith et al
|
transformation experiment with mice
bacteria take up DNA in environment |
|
|
Hershey and Chase
|
prove DNA is coding agent in viruses
|
|
|
Chargaff
|
discovered base pairing of adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine
|
|
|
Watson and Crick
|
double helix structure of DNA
|
|
|
stages of cell communication
|
reception, transduction, response
|
|
|
flaccid v turgid
|
flaccid = deflate
turgid = inflate |
|
|
major element in living things
|
CHNOPS
|
|
|
Lamarck
|
fossils---changes over time
1. use and disuse 2. inheritance of acquired characteristics--incorrect--you can't pass on big muscles to son by working out yourself 3. natural transformation of species--incorrect |
|
|
Hutton and Lyell
|
uniformitarianism---geological processes are slow
|
|
|
Hardy Weinberg Theory
|
allele frequencies in pop do not change over time if 5 conditions exist:
1. large pop 2. no migration 3. no mutations 4. random mating 5. no natural selection p + q = 1 --allele frequencies in pop as whole p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 --specific genotypes in pop p^2 = homo dom q^2 = homo recessive 2pq = hetero p = dominant q = recessive |
|
|
microevolution
|
--new species originate
-- pop of organisms change from generation to generation |
|
|
macroevolution
|
change in groups of related species over long period of time
|
|
|
stabilizing selection
|
favors middle
|
|
|
directional selection
|
favors one extreme
|
|
|
diversifying selection
|
favors both extremes
|
|
|
gene flow
|
addition or removal of alleles as a result of emigration or immigration
|
|
|
genetic drift
|
random increase or decrease in alleles
|
|
|
founder effect
|
allele frequencies in a group of migrating individuals are, by chance, not the same as that population of origin
|
|
|
bottleneck effect
|
dramatic decrease in size of pop---very vulnerable to genetic drift
|
|
|
spliceosomes
small nuclear ribonucleoproteins |
formation of mature mRNA
|
