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119 Cards in this Set
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historical archaeology
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the archaeology of a society that has written records.
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ethnographic analogy
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interpreting archaeological data through the observation of analogous activities in existing societies
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forensic anthropology
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a subfield of anthropology applied to legal matters: usually involved in the identification of skeletal remains and the assessment of time and cause of death.
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experimental archaeology
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the process of understanding ancient skills and technologies by reproducing them.
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experimental archaeology
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The process of understanding ancient skills and technologies by reproducing them
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methods of locating a site
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-obvious sites
-accidental (farmer plowing turns up artifact) -just by looking (especially where erosion exposes fossil beds) |
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test pit
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an explanatory, usually small excavation made to establish the presence or absence of an archaeological site.
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excavation
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detailed extensive records must be kept on the location of every fossil
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relative dating
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dating that indicates the age of one item in comparison to another
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absolute dating
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dating that gives a specific age, year, or range of years for an object or site
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radiometric
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referring to the decay rate of a radioactive substance
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carbon dating
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a radiometric dating technique using the decay rate of a radioactive form of carbon found in organic remains
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half-life
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the time needed for one-half of a given amount of a radioactive substance to decay
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potassium/argon dating
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a radiometric dating technique using the rate at which radioactive potassium found in volcanic rock decays into stable argon gas
-half-life is 1.3 billion years |
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bulb of percussion
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a convex surface on a flake caused by the force used to split the flake off. Rarely found in a natural break
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pressure flake
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Taking a flake off a core by pushing a wood, bone, or antler tool against the stone
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Acheulian
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a toolmaking tradition associated with HomoErectus in Africa and Europe. Includes hand axes, cleavers, and flake tools.
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Levallois
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a tool technology in which uniform flakes are struck from a prepared core
Archaic Homosapiens |
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Mousterian
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a toolmaking technology, associated with the European Neandertals, in which flakes were carefully retouched to produce diverse tool types
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microliths
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small stone flakes, usually used as a part of a larger tool such as a sickle
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Upper Paleolithic (Late Stone Age)
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modern Homo sapians had spread all over the Old World and even as far as Australia
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subfields of archaeology
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-historical archaeology
-prehistorical archaeology |
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historical archaeology
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reconstruction of cultural systems of societies that have written records
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prehistorical archaeology
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reconstruction of cultural systems that have no written records
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artifacts
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objects modified by human activities. These can be removed from the archaeological site without damaging them
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features
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defined as non-portable object made by human activities. These cannot be removed from the archaeological site without causing damage either to the site as a whole or to them.
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site
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the spatial distribution of the artifacts and features
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Stages of Archaeological research
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-Discovery
-Recovery -Analysis and Curation of the recovered materials |
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Discovery
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-some already unearthed
-some of the earthed items are discovered by accident -surveys to discover archaeological site |
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pedestrian survey
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a group of archaeologists walk on the surface of the ground after dividing the site into specific areas
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aerial survey
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satellite images are utilized in order to identify the archaeological sites and some of their features
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vertical dimensions
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represents the accumulations of sediments through time.
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law of superposition
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sequence of layers that represent age of artifacts
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horizontal dimension
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represents the placement of artifacts in time
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recovery
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-a crew of archaeologists dig the site and remove the materials
-grid system-used to locate every single artifact and/or feature in the site horizontally and vertically |
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analysis and curation of recovered materials
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archaeologists analyze the materials and try to understand various cultural elements
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relative techniques
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-superposition
-seration -association |
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absolute techniques
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-carbon 14
-potassium-argon -dendrochronology |
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exceptional cultural characteristics of Neandertals
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-buried dead
-cared for sick, elderly and injured |
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venus figurines
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women with exaggerated sexual characteristics, possible symbol of fertility
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purposes of cave paintings
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-fertility magic
-hunting magic -hunting education -storytelling about hunting |
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All cultures have...
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-a material economy and technology
-a system of social organization -a system of beliefs and values |
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dendrochronology
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Tree ring dating, the most accurate dating technique. Developed in the South West of the United States. Master chronology for more than 8000 years in the South West
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approaches of interpreting archaeological data
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-What are the kinds of artifacts found in the site?
-What are the features found in the site? -What is the spatial distribution (horizontal and vertical) of the materials found in the site? |
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What kinds of questions are addressed by looking at the archaeologiccal materials?
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-Socioeconomic status
-Nutrition |
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Socioeconomic status
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-body ornamentation
-materials buried with individuals -medical treatment |
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nutrition
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-skeletal remains
-tool use |
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4 theories
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-Mid-continental route
-Northwest route -Pacific route -Atlantic route |
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Mid-Continental route
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-clovis, first model
-people from Asia come in through Canada during last ice age (13,000 BP-12,000 BP) -they passed through the Bering Land Bridge -provide an avenue for asians to pursue megafauna from Berinigia to Southern parts of continent |
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megafauna
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-10,900 BP became extinct in North and South America
-large and lived in large populations -wooly mammoth, mastadon, giant ground sloth, giant beaver, camels |
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hypotheses for megafauna extinction
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-Paul Martin's "overkill" hypothesis
-climate change hypothesis |
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Clovis tools
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-After New Mexico town site of the first discovery in 1932 close to a town named Clovis
-Fluted projectile points hafted to spears -12,000-11,000 BP |
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clovis sites
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Monte Verde, Chile
Meadowcroft Rockshelter, PA |
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Problems with Mid-Continental route
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-glaciers didn't recede until 12,000-13,000 BP
-sites dated older than clovis -used by later migrants -no archaeological remains from Bering Strait |
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Northwest route
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-Deglaciation along Northwest coast 14000 BP
-Migrants used watercraft, colonized coastal areas |
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Pacific route
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-Polynesians/Melanesians
-explains sites in South America -explains Australian/Melanasian morphology of earliest South Americans |
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Cultural history
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-domestication of plants and animals
-development of state societies characterized by urban centers and social stratification |
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Hypotheses that explain the origin of Agriculture
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-culture progress
-environmental change -population pressure -coevolution |
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culture progress
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It states that agriculture is superior to foraging
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environmental change
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-agriculture arose by the end of Pleistocene
-rapid environmental change -elevated sea level -extinction of big game -rapid climate warming |
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population pressure
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-very famous in recent years
-wild resources became depleted and agriculture became worth doing |
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coevolution
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-most recent hypothesis
-mutual evolutionary effects of humans and plants or animals -new ways to exploit wild resources -plants and animals are opportunistic, have genetic plasticity |
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cultivation
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-performed by humans
-planting -weeding -caring of crops |
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domestication
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as a result of genetic plasticity, there are many genetic changes that take place in response to cultivation
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Humans select plants based on the following traits
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-grains with tougher stems
-plants with larger fruits and seeds -plants with brittle husks -plants that retain seeds longer |
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humans select animals based on the following traits
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-smaller size
-milk production -wool production |
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Times stages of agriculture
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Hunting and gathering-Mesolithic
-Paleoindian clovis folsum -Archaic end of archaic is the beginning of horticulture Neolithic -Formative agriculture |
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Plants and animals domesticated in the new world
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-maize (corn)
-beans -tomatoes -potatoes -dogs -chilies -turkeys -llamas |
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Omecs
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-earliest civilization in Central America
-Arose between 1200 and 1000 BC -originated in the Gulf Coast region of Southern Mexico and expanded into Guatamala -Ceremonial cities -pyramids and temples builts from mud and earth -the largest monuments are collosal heads with thick lips and helmets -elite group-lived in urban area -common people group-lived in rural area |
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Teotinuacan
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-around the time of Christ 2000 BP
-monumental construction -the city expanded to approxiametely 20 square km, 60,000 to 80,000 inhabitants -state level capital city smaller urban centers rural villages |
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Maya
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-state-level
-Peak 1600 BP -collapsed 1100 BP -occupied the eastern third of Mesoamerica -religiously and artistically united -politically-compromised many sovereign states -As many as 20 states existed in Yucatan peninsula |
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Aztec
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-aztecs came from the remote north around the early 13th century
-became sedentary by AD 1325, before that they were wandering around the Mexican valley -state-level civilization -collapsed with the arrival of the Spaniards |
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Advantages of agriculture
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-surplus of food led to specialization
-increased food production led to increased fertility by lowering the weaning age |
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Disadvantages of Agriculture
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-narrow spectrum dietary profile in contrast to hunter-gatherers
-less varied diet -low protein diet -more contact with animals led to diseases from domesticated animals to humans -microorganisms increased with agriculture -human societies became more vulnerable to infections, especially those requiring high population size and density -stratified society warfare crime slavery |
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subsistence pattern
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how a society acquires its food
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hunter-gatherer
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a subsistence pattern that relies on naturally occuring sources of food
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foraging
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another name for hunter-gathering
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the two subsistence patterns
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-food collecting
-food producing |
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polytheism
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refers to religious system that recognizes multiple supernatural beings
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social stratification
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the presence of awknowledged differences in social status, political influence, and wealth among the people within a society
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Forager traits
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-egalitarianistic
-polytheistic -post-partum sex taboo or infanticide -division of labor (men hunt, women gather) -not territorial -nomadic -most monogamous (5% polygynous) |
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egalitarianism
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the practice of not recognizing, and even eliminating, differences in social status and wealth
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postpartum sex taboo
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the practice of prohibiting sex for a certain period of time after a woman gives birth for purposes of limiting the birth rate
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infanticide
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the killing of infants
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bands
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small autonomous groups, usually associated with foraging societies
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nomadic
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referring to societies that move from place to place in search of resources or in response to seasonal fluctuations
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division of labor
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when certain individuals within a society perform certain jobs, usually refers to the different jobs of men and women
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labor specialization
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when certain jobs are performed by particular persons
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monogamy
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a marriage unit made up of only one husband and one wife
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polygyny
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a marriage unit made up of one husband and multiple wives
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evidence for food producing societies
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-artifacts
-biological differences between wild and domestic plants and animals |
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intensive foraging
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hunting and gathering in an environment that provides a very wide range of food resources
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Why food producing?
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-retreat of Pleistocene ice sheets and attendant climatic alterations
-population increase |
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Types of food producing
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-horticulture
-pastoralism -agriculture |
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horticulture
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-focus on farming, use only human labor
-indigenous groups of Amazon rainforest, the forests of Central Africa and Southeast Asia, and the highlands of New Guinea -live in larger groups -populations sedentary -polygynous -egalitarian specialized role when needed -beginning of ownership -concept of territory -polytheistic gods in hierarchy |
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Pastoralism
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-subsistence based on herding of animals
-dry savannas of East Africa, Indian subcontinent, Southwest Asia, TIbetan Plateau -nomadic -egalitarian within group, territorial with other groups -men-herd animals women-household, child rearing -ancestor worship |
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agriculture
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-use animal or mechanical labor
-big, stable, sedentary population -specializations -social stratification -polytheistic -a civilization |
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civilization
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cultures with an agricultural surplus, social stratification, a formal government, rule by power, monumental construction projects, and a system of record keeping
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industrialism
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sometimes recognized as a subsistence pattern. characterized by a focus on mechanical sources of energy and food production by a small percentage of the population.
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money
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a symbolic representation of wealth. used for exchange in place of actual products or services
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general reciprocity
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giving with no expectation of equivalent return
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balanced reciprocity
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giving with expectation of reciprocal return
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market system
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where money is used for exchange in place of goods and services
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redistribution
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where surplus goods are collected centrally and then given out to those persons in need of them
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3 aspects of social stratification
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-rank
-class -caste |
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rank
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refers to a society that strives for equal distribution of goods and services but that achieves this through the use of recognized, often temporary status differences
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class
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a system of socioeconomic stratification in which the strata are often open and a person may move to a different stratum
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caste
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a system of socioeconomic stratification in which strata are closed and a person's membership is determined at birth
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magnetometry
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a method of surveying cessium detectors
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Archaeological anthropology
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study material culture of past societies by digging the artifacts up.
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material culture
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-artifacts
-features -sites |
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Atlantic route
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-suggested by Dennis Stanford and Bruce Bradly
-Solutrean mantime hunters/fishers came along south margin of Atlantic sea ice to the New World during late Wisconsin -showed similarities between Clovis tools and Solutrean tradition in Europe |
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What is the most plausible route?
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Northwest route
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Folsom culture
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-known by material culture
-took name after excavation near Folsom east of Ralzon, NM -artifacts: chipped flint points, variety of stone tools-some fluted/hafted -projectile points are smaller than clovis, and thinner blades -found in association with big mammal remain (bison) -"surround kill" method |
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clovis v. folsom
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-clovis evolved to folsom
-both modified point -Folsom fluted more than 2/3, clovis less than 2/3 -folsom points are smaller and thinner -mammoth-clovis bison-folsom |
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archaic culture-new technology
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copper tools and woodworking
implements (axes and gouges) |
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seasonal migration
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small bands moved based on availability of food and raw materials
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neolithic
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new stone age
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mesolithic
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middle stone age
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