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168 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Homologous behavior |
A shared behavior between different species due to common ancestry |
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Convergent behavior |
When a similar behavior has evolved independently in different taxa Ex. black headed gulls and CA ground squirrels both exhibit mobbing behavior against predators but are distantly related, so it is convergent beh |
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Tinbergen's 4 questions for animal behavior |
1.) What is the mechanism for behaviors 2.)What is the ontogeny of a behavior; how does it develop? 3.)What is the adaptive function of a behavior? 4.)Where and when did a behavior evolve and how does it differ between taxa? |
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Why does the loggerhead shrike exhibit egg ejecting behavior when its' range does not and has never overlapped with a nest parasite? |
Phylogeny. They are closely related to several bird species that regularly eject cuckoo intrusions. This behavior is an evolutionary "left-over". There must not be a significant cost to this behavior, otherwise it would have been selected against. Either that or this behavior is also beneficial. Possibly it increases the survival of the remaining eggs/offspring. |
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Preexisting bias hypothesis |
When psychological predispositions or biases resulting from how the brain is wired have a profound effect on evolution of elaborate behavioral traits |
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Konrad Lorenz |
one of the first ethologists, developed the behavioral concepts of critical period, imprinting and the psycho-hydraulic model of behavioral motivation |
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Karl von Frisch |
Early ethologist that studied the sensory perception of honey bees. He was the first to interpret the meaning of the waggle dance in bees |
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Proximate cause of behavior |
This is the trigger for a behavior; typically a sensory stimulus. Mechanism Ontogeny |
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Ultimate cause of a behavior |
Why that behavior occurs, evolutionarily. Evolution shapes the behavior over time. Adaptive function Phylogeny |
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Just so story |
When an observer makes a statement about the function and evolution of the behavior without having tested hypotheses |
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Neurons |
Cells that carry action potentials from one location to another in the body |
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Acetylcholine |
Neurotransmitter that links axons with muscles |
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Additive genetic variation |
measures interactions among genes, such as genetic dominance |
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Artificial selection |
The selection of specific traits when breeding two animals or plants together by humans |
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Quantitve trait locus analysis |
Used for mapping the general location on a chromosome for genes that are correlated with a certain phenotype and for determining the number of genes that have major influences on a certain phenotype |
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Motivation or drive theory |
Explanation for how an animal decides to engage in a particular activity at any given time; helps explain this internal decision making process |
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Redirected behavior |
When an animal can't complete the desired task, sometimes due to societal rules, and directs the energy onto a third party or inanimate object |
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What are hypotheses for why animals play? |
-It helps to develop motor skills or coordination -It stimulates brain development -It allows for learning of social skills -It establishes social bonds and hierarchical societal positions |
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Time budget |
When you observe an animal and record the amount of time the animal spends on different activities during the day |
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Psycho-hydraulic model of motivation |
Model in which action specific energy drips into a reservoir that has a valve which is an innate releasing mechanism with a string and pulley attached to a weight which represents the stimulus. When the stimulus is strong enough, it opens the valve and releases energy into a second reservoir for fixed action patterns. This reservoir has different openings at different heights to represent the differing degrees of expression depending on how much energy fills it. |
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Vacuum activity |
When an animal expresses a behavior with, seemingly, no stimulus. |
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Displacement behavior |
The allocation of energy into another task when the desired action cannot be completed |
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Self-directed behavior |
Redirection of energy for a task that could not be completed to oneself |
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Habituation |
The lack of a response to a stimulus that has been given repeatedly. |
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Sensitization |
When an animal becomes very sensitive to a smaller stimulus, typically after one large stimulus. |
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Learning |
The alteration of a behavior due to an experience. |
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How are short-term memories stored? |
As a response to a weak stimulus. It phosphorylates sodium ion channels at a synapse and increases the amount of neurotransmitter that binds. |
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How are long-term memories stored? |
Due to stronger and longer-lasting stimuli; cAMP is released which activates protein kinase which phosphorylates proteins that signal the cell nuclus to order the synthesis of more proteins. This can change the shape and function of the synapse to increase efficiency and the number of transmitters that bind. |
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Imprinting |
Learning of critical information at a young age during a small period (critical window) of time. Often irreversible. Filial imprinting Kin imprinting Sexual imprinting |
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Filial imprinting |
Learning parents or caretakers and then the young will exhibit a following response |
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Kin imprinting |
Identifying siblings and the level of relatedness between them; helps them know who to help and who to avoid mating with |
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Sexual imprinting |
Identification of who to mate with and what adults of the same species should look like |
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Associative learning (conditioning) |
Learning to associate a stimulus with some sort of reward or punishment Classical and operant |
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Classical conditioning |
Associating one stimulus with another irrelevant stimulus Pavlov's dog |
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Operant conditioning |
Learning that an action is associated with a consequence (usually reward) |
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Taste aversion lerning |
When an animal ingests a poisonous food, becomes ill, and avoids the food. |
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Trial and error learning |
When an animal tries a solution to a problem, and if incorrect, will continue trying other solutions until it tries the correct one. Mazes |
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Social learning |
When one animal observes another completing an action and learns from it |
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Isolation experiments |
When an animal is removed from the environment and it's behavior is monitored. Used to determine if the behavior is due to environment or genetics |
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Common gardening |
When two species with different behaviors are put in the same environment to determine if the environment elicits a behavior |
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Cross-fostering |
An animal is raised by parents of another species and it's behavior is observed to determine if it is due to genetics or environment |
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Epigenetics |
Alteration of genes by the environment, which can be inherited by offspring. Environment can cause methylation of DNA which will cause the gene to stop being expressed as a behavior |
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Polygyny |
Males attempt to mate with more than one female |
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Sequential Polygyny |
When a male pairs with one female at a time but many females over a season More likely when season is prolonged- tropical areas |
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Defense Polygyny |
When a male secures matings by defense -Directly defend groups of females or defend resources that females need -females tolerate when resources are poorly distributed and the males enforce it |
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Lekking |
Males defend a position in a group display site (lek). |
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Why do males form a lek? |
Hotspot hypothesis- there is one spot where females travel anyways, so males wait for females to pass Hotshot hypothesis- there is one dominant male and the other males hang around because females will come to him |
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Why do females go to a lek? |
-Its on the way, so they don't have to waste time looking for males -It provides ease of comparison- search costs are low - The position of males is uncheatable; can tell hierarchy by arrangement of males (dom male in center) |
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Polyandry |
Females mate with multiple males -When females aren't limited by resources -males typically provide extensive care -can result in sex role reversal in extreme cases |
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Promiscuity |
When animals are indiscriminate in the choice of sexual partners -often in species with brief breeding opportunities Scramble competition or explosive breeding |
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Alternative mating strategies |
Sneakers, satellites, female mimics, etc |
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Sneaky males |
Hide near a male territory and once females lay eggs, sneak sneaks out and does a drive by fertilization |
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Female mimics |
Larger than sneaky males, mimics a female so the male allows them on territory with himself and other female and mimic adds sperm to eggs |
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Free-running behavior |
daily behavioral rhythm that continue in absence of a zeitgeber |
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Components of a reflex loop |
FILL IN |
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Umwelt |
Species-specific sensory environment |
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Broad-sense |
Heritability measurement that includes additive and non-additive genes |
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Larder hoarder |
hide their entire food supply in one area |
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Scatter hoarder |
Hide their food supply in many places |
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Positive punishment |
Presentation of a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited |
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Public information |
signals that can be perceived by animals other than the intended receiver |
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Dissipation |
Loss of intensity of sound as it travels over a distance |
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Marginal value theorem |
As the distance between patches of food increases, animals are more likely to spend more time in each patch |
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Single gene mutation |
Genetic change in just one gene |
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Key concepts of heritability |
-Population level measure -NOT a measure of degree of genetic control of behavioral trait -Can differ among environments -Behavior must vary among individuals in the population for it to have measurable heritability -Strong selection on beh trait reduces heritability of that trait because it reduces variation |
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Vp = Vg + Ve |
Variation of a phenotype = sum of variation due to genetic effects and variation due to environmental effects |
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Genetic Variation |
A measure of the variation in phenotype that is due to all variation in genotype. Additive and nonadditive |
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Additive genetic variation |
Proportion of genetic variation due to simple additive effects among genes; due to allelic differences because they work together Reduced in strong selection- because it changes allele frequencies |
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Nonadditive genetic variation |
Results from interactions between alleles and from gene dominance at the same locus |
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Epistasis |
When genes interact in ways that change the action of the genes from different loci |
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Broad-sense heritability |
Proportion of phenotypic variation that is explained by genetic variation Used to measure magnitude of genetic influences on a trait |
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Narrow-sense heritability |
Proportion of phenotypic variation that is explained by additive genetic variation Used to predict how animals will respond to artificial or natural selection |
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How can additive variation persist in strong selection? |
1.) Balancing selection- 2 extreme pheno favored and maintained 2.) Epistasis- an allele is not fixated bc while it is favored it also is deleterious to other genes 3.) Correlated characteristic- pheno expressed in both sexes but only important in one (males) bc selection max trait in females and the deleterious effect outweighs selection 4.) Handicap principle- prod. of costly pheno, so if can survive with it, must have good genes |
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Questions addressed with QTL |
-How many genes influence expression of a quantitative trait? -What is the level of influence of ea gene on the trait? -Where are the genes located on the chromosomes? -What is the function of ea gene? |
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Candidate gene |
Gene identified as having a strong possibility of playing a role in regulating phenotype |
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Knockout |
Single gene removed or stopped from transcription and see what happens to behavior without it |
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Interference RNA |
Silences genetic info without damaging it |
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Microarray |
Spot slides with known genes from a model organism and expose it to RNA of animal with behavior of interest and will light up if matching RNA binds |
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Positive Reinforcement |
Addition of a treat (positive) when the desired activity is performed |
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Negative Reinforcement |
Receiving something negative (pain) when performs undesired activity |
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Positive punishment |
Addition of aversive stimulus following target behavior |
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Negative punishment |
desired stimulus removed after performs undesired activity |
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Cache retrieval learning |
Learning where a cache is stored |
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Central place foraging |
special case of MVT where animals forage and return to a shelter or larder |
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Asexual reproduction |
Exact copying of DNA base sequences; clonal growth-budding or parthenogenesis |
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Sexual reproduction |
Genetic recombination of two individuals |
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Anisogamy |
Sexual dimorphism in gamete size |
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Evolutionary stable strategy |
A set of behavioral tactics at a stable equilibrium; once it is fixed in a population, natural selection alone is enough to prevent invasion by alternative strategies Ex. anisogamy- sperm strategy of being mobile and egg strategy of gaining/producing resources are equally beneficial and is stable in a 50/50 pop sex ratio |
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Fisherian sex ratio |
1:1, equilibrium sex ratio, parental expenditure is equal because each sex supplies exactly half the genes of all future generations |
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Non-fisherian sex ratio |
Not 1:1, not at equilibrium |
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Frequency-dependent selection |
probability of an individual being able to mate is dependent on the frequency of the opposite sex in relation to its own sex. First described by Darwin |
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Game theory/Nash equilibria vs. ESS |
Motivation for game theory is to predict moves of other players and maximize payoff assuming that both players know how game works. ESS- strategies are genetically encoded and heritable, ind. have no control over strategy and aren't aware of game, payoff is fitness, ESS must be resistant to alternative strategies that arise via mutation- nat sel should get rid of these if this is an ESS |
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Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) |
Predicts that if a behavior is adaptive, then the benefits of the behavior must outweigh the costs. Costs are usually time and energy while benefits are increased food intake, survival and reproduction Max benefits while min costs |
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Currencies for cost-benefit analysis |
1. Schoener's food intake 2. Mangel and Clark's time minimization hyp 3. Charnov's time btwn patches and deciding when to leave one for another (MVT) -Inbreeding avoidance -Max gen benefits to offspring (good genes or more variation in MHC -Max body condition b4 mig or nesting -Avoidance of parasites |
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What are some constraints animals face when making an optimal decision? |
Environmental factors Morphological or physiological characteristics Seasonal food fluctuations Competition Food patchiness Cognitive limitations Sensory limitations Carrying load Nutrient constraints |
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What are some limitations of CBA and optimality models? |
-Currency chosen by researcher may not reflect actual currency |
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Optimal trait value |
Trait value that confers the highest fitness in a particular environment under all modes of selection. |
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Proximate explanation |
Explanation that focuses on understanding the immediate causes of a behavior -What is the mechanism that causes that behavior? -How does the behavior develop? |
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Ultimate explanation |
Explanation that requires evolutionary reasoning and analyses |
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Methods for studying behavior |
1. Observational- observe and record behavior 2. Experimental- Manipulate variable to see how it affects behavior 3. Comparative- Examines similarities and differences btwn species to understand evolution of behavior |
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Control group |
Group that does not experience manipulation of the independent variable and serves as a comparison for manipulated groups |
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Ancestral trait |
Found in the common ancestor of two or more species |
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Derived trait |
Found in an organism that was not present in the last common ancestor of a group of two or more species |
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Phylogeny |
Hypothesized evolutionary ancestor-descendent relationships among a set of organsims |
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Sister species |
Two species that are more closely related to one another than to any other species |
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Morgan's Canon |
The simplest psychological process possible should be used to interpret animal behavior |
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Skinner box |
Operant chamber to study behavioral conditioning. |
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Fixed action pattern |
Behaviors that are invariant and unlearned. Once initiated, they are brought to completion |
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Releaser stimuli |
Stimuli that initiates a fixed action pattern |
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Behavioral phenotype is a result of what? |
1. It's genotype at all loci that affect behavior 2. Environment it has experienced 3. Gene-environment interactions |
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Instinct |
Behaviors performed in same way each time, are fully expressed the first time they are exhibited, and are present even in individuals raised in isolation |
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Reflex |
An involuntary movement in response to a stimulus One kind of innate behavior |
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Wild type |
typical form of an organism or gene that occurs in nature |
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Major gene |
Individual gene that is responsible for a large fraction of phenotypic variation |
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Minor gene |
Individual gene that contributes to a small amounts of variation in the phenotype |
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Quantitative trait loci (QTL) |
Stretches of DNA that either contain or are linked to genes influencing a trait such as behavior |
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QTL mapping |
Stats technique that combines genetic info with trait info to determine which regions of the genome contain the genes that influence the trait QTLs |
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Candidate genes |
Major genes suspected of contributing to a large amount of the phenotypic variation in a specific trait |
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Linkage map |
Genetic map of the relative positions of genetic markers on chromosomes |
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Knockout technique |
A single gene is rendered nonfunctional and the researcher looks for changes in behavior |
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Broad-sense heritability |
Proportion of phenotypic variation in a pop due to genetic variation Useful for clonal species or when offspring and parents have close to identical genotypes |
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Additive effects |
Average effect of individual alleles on the phenotype |
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Dominance effects |
The interaction between alleles at one locus |
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Epistasis |
Interactions between genes at different loci |
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Narrow-sense heritability |
Proportion of phenotypic variance solely as a result of additive genetic values More commonly reported measure |
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Microarray analysis |
Measurement of the activity of many genes by quantifying gene products |
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Close-ended learners |
birds that must hear a tutor sing its conspecific song shortly after hatching in order to learn the song correctly Fixed ciritical period for learning song |
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Open-ended learners |
Birds that can acquire new song elements throughout life |
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Knockdown technique |
Procedure that reduces the expression of a gene |
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Reaction norm |
Range of behaviors expressed by a single genotype in different environments |
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Gene-environment interaction (GEI) |
If the env has a greater effect on one genotype than others |
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What is phenotypic variation in behavior a result of? |
Vp= Vg + Ve + Vgei Pheno var = geno var + env var + var from interaction between the two |
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Rover |
Larval rovers have longer foraging trails than sitters in the presence of food and are more likely to leave a food patch |
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Sitter |
Sitters have shorter foraging trails than rovers in the presence of food and are less likely to leave a food patch |
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Personalities |
Consistent relative differences in behavior among individuals over time or across different environmental contexts |
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Dear enemy hypothesis |
territory owners will show reduced aggressive interactions toward territorial neighbors, compared to strangers -Mechanism is habituation to the neighbor |
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memory |
Retention of learned experiences |
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Neural plasticity |
Structural changes in the brain, especially in the number of synapses and the strength of chemical synapses between neurons |
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Dendritic spines |
Small protuberances on a dendrite that typically receive synaptic inputs |
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Cache |
Food stored in a hidden location for later retreival Episodic memory is mechanism that allows them to remember where cache is Typically have larger hippocampus |
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Episodic memory |
Memory of a specific object, place, and time |
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Chemical alarm substances |
Chemicals released from damaged epidermal cells in fish that function as an alarm cue for others |
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Social information |
INfo obtained from others about the env |
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Local enhancement |
Direction of an individual's focus to a particular part of the env by the presence of another |
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Public info |
Info obtained from the activity or performance of others about the quality of an env parameter or resource |
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Behavioral traditions |
Differences in behavior among populations, transmitted across generations through social learning |
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Cognition |
Ability to generate and store mental representations of the physical and social env to motivate behavior or solve problems |
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Insight learning |
Spontaneous problem solving without the benefit of trial-and-error learning |
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Numerical competency |
Ability to recognize numerical quantities |
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Evolutionary stable strategy |
Strategy such that, if most of the members of a population adopt it, there is no mutant strategy that would give higher reproductive fitness Maynard Smith and Price |
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How do you know if a strategy is stable? |
If the system in equilibrium, once disturbed, returns to the equilibrium state, it is said to be stable. Taylor and Jonker |
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Hamilton's Rule |
In an interaction between individuals, C < r x B C= cost in fitness to the actor r= relatedness between actor and recipient B= fitness benefit to recipient Kin selection To perform an altruistic act, the degree of relatedness and benefit to the recipient must be higher than the cost to the actor |
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Fisher's principle |
If male births are less common than female birth, then a newborn male has better mating prospects and produces more offspring. Genes from the males parents for producing males spreads b/c male has more offspring and male births are more common. As approach a 1:1 ratio, advantage of males dies away. ESS, freq dep sel |
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Signaler |
Individual that produces a signal |
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Signal receiver |
Individual that detects a signal |
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Communication |
Process in which a specialized signal produced by one individual affects behavior of another |
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Signal |
Packet of energy or matter generated from a display or action of a signaler that travels to a receiver |
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Waggle dance |
Behavior performed by honeybee scout that recruits workers to a food source |
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Alarm calls |
Unique vocalizations produced by social animals when predator nearby |
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What favors evolution of honest signals? |
1. fitness interests of signaler and receiver may be similar 2. Signals are accurate indicators when they cannot be faked 3. Costly to produce or maintain |
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Aposematic coloration |
Brightly colored morphology in a species that stands out from env and is associated with noxious chemicals or poisons that make them unpalatable or dangerous |
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Who benefits from aposematic coloration? |
Both signaler and receiver. Receiver benefits from not eating because it will become sick. Signaler benefits from not being eaten. |
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Batesian mimicry |
A palatable mimic resembles an unpalatable model that predators have learned to avoid The species would have to co-occur in an area |
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Aggressive mimicry |
A situation in which a predator mimics a non-threatening model. |
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Why is intraspecific deception less common? |
Intraspecific interactions are more common so they learn inaccurate signals faster Natural selection favors receivers that can discriminate accurate from inaccurate signals. |
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Sexual deception hypothesis |
Males will produce deceptive signals to females in order to enhance their own reproduction |
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Bystander (eavesdropper) |
Third party individual that detects a signal transmitted between a signaler and receiver |
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Audience effect |
occurs when the presence of bystanders influences the behavior of a signaler |