Advanced Nutrition Test1

Front 1

peroxisome

Back 1

contains catalase that can break down hydrogen peroxide (H202) into water

Front 2

cytoskeleton

Back 2

holds shape for cells

Front 3

cytoplasm/cytosol

Back 3

gel-like substance containing organelles, protein, electrolytes, and other molecules. Also holds shape of cell

Front 4

centrioles

Back 4

cell devision. acts as anchors

Front 5

nuclear membrane

Back 5

protects the nucleus. phospholipid bilayer- polar hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic fatty acid tails. allows flow of compounds in and out of nucleus

Front 6

cell membrane/plasma membrane

Back 6

protects the cell. phospholipid bilayer- polar hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic fatty acid tails. bilayer contains embedded proteins, CHOs, and lipids. proteins act as receptors to external stimuli that regulate movement of substances in and out of the cell. allows flow of compounds in and out of cell.

Front 7

nucleolus

Back 7

where ribosomes are synthesized

Front 8

nucleus

Back 8

contains the DNA in the cell. molecules of DNA provide coded instructions used for protein synthesis

Front 9

mitochondrion

Back 9

produce most of the energy (ATP) used by the cells (powerhouse)

Front 10

golgi apparatus

Back 10

a series of membrane sacks that process and package proteins after they leave the rough ER (post-translation)

Front 11

Rough ER

Back 11

a series of membrane sacks that contain ribosomes that build and process proteins

Front 12

ribosomes

Back 12

build and process proteins

Front 13

smooth ER

Back 13

region of the ER involved in lipid synthesis. Doesn't contain ribosomes.

Front 14

lysosome

Back 14

contains digestive enzymes that break up proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. they also remove and recycle waste. (digestive enzymes)

Front 15

vili and microvilli are in which type of cells?

Back 15

intestinal cells

Front 16

integral protein

Back 16

goes through bilayer. passage/carrier of things/compounds in and out of the cell

Front 17

peripheral protein

Back 17

doesn't go through, sits on the surface. an example includes glycoprotein. identification, recognition, communication within the cell. could also be receptors and attach things to the cell

Front 18

oligosaccharides are made up of what?

Back 18

glucose units

Front 19

what are glycoproteins made up of?

Back 19

proteins attached to oligosaccharides

Front 20

glycolipids

Back 20

when oligosaccharides are attached to the polar heads of the bilayer. more likely to be peripheral.

Front 21

glycocalyx

Back 21

the whole entity of proteins and lipids that contain oligosaccharides and are recognition. more likely to be peripheral.

Front 22

cholesterol

Back 22

fluidity/rigidity/structure of the cell membrane. it is the yellow within the bilayer

Front 23

passive transport

Back 23

higher to lower concentration. integral protein

Front 24

active transport

Back 24

requires ATP (energy). integral protein

Front 25

sodium potassium pumps

Back 25

glucose and sodium enter cells

Front 26

do integral proteins do passive or active transport?

Back 26

both

Front 27

what does DNA stand for?

Back 27

deoxyribonucleic acid

Front 28

what is the role of the nucleus

Back 28

contains DNA, cell division/replication, cell proteins made here (mRNA)

Front 29

is the cytoplasm aerobic or anaerobic glycolysis?

Back 29

anaerobic - in the absence of oxygen

Front 30

what does HMP shunt stand for?

Back 30

hexose monophosphate shunt

Front 31

where is the HMP shunt located?

Back 31

in the cytoplasm of the cell

Front 32

what is the other term for the HMP shunt?

Back 32

PPP (pentose phosphate pathway)

Front 33

what is the HMP shunt? what does it do?

Back 33

an offshoot of the glycolytic pathway. it generates ribose sugars for RNA and DNA. its involved in the formation of reducing equivalents (NADPH2) for lipid synthesis

Front 34

where does glycogenesis and glycogenolysis occur?

Back 34

in the cytoplasm of muscle and liver cells

Front 35

what does glycogenesis mean?

Back 35

the making of new glycogen

Front 36

what does glycogenolysis mean?

Back 36

the breaking down of glycogen

Front 37

you make and break ________ in the muscle for the muscle you are actually using

Back 37

glycogen

Front 38

when does the liver make and break glycogen?

Back 38

when glucose drops (examples-overnight in a fasting state)

Front 39

where does fatty acid synthesis occur?

Back 39

in the cytoplasm of the cell

Front 40

why can't fatty acids break down in the cytoplasm?

Back 40

because oxygen is necessary. break down occurs in the mitochondria because it contains oxygen.

Front 41

What does TCA stand for?

Back 41

Tricarboxylic acid cycle

Front 42

where does the TCA cycle occur?

Back 42

the mitochondria

Front 43

what are the other names for the TCA cycle?

Back 43

the Kreb's cycle and the citric acid cycle

Front 44

where does Beta oxidation occur?

Back 44

the mitochondria

Front 45

what does ETC stand for?

Back 45

Electron Transport Channel

Front 46

where does ETC occur?

Back 46

the mitochondria

Front 47

does aerobic or anaerobic glycolysis occur in the mitochondria?

Back 47

aerobic because there is oxygen present

Front 48

what is the RBC's only source of energy production? Why?

Back 48

glucose. it can't use fat for energy because it uses anaerobic glycolysis

Front 49

what are the pyrimidines in DNA?

Back 49

Thymine and cytosine

Front 50

what are the purines in DNA?

Back 50

Adenine and guanine

Front 51

which is one ring and which is two ring? pyrimidines or purines?

Back 51

pyrimidines are one ring, purines are two rings

Front 52

deoxyribose

Back 52

absence of oxygen

Front 53

which pyridines and which purines pair together?

Back 53

AT & CG

Front 54

replication

Back 54

the making (synthesis) of two new daughter strands of DNA from 1 parent strand. these strands are identical to the parent DNA. In replication, the double helix unravel (cell division) and incoming nucleotide bases first pair with the complimentary bases in the template and then are connected through phosphate diester bonds.

Front 55

the differences between DNA and RNA

Back 55

DNA: no oxygen, 2 strands, T (not U)
RNA: oxygen present, 1 strand, U (not T)

Front 56

transcription

Back 56

the genetic information in a single strand of DNA makes a specific sequence of bases in a messenger RNA (mRNA) chain. a single strand of DNA can make many copies of the corresponding mRNA. basically, transcription results in the synthesis of a strand of mRNA through complementary base pairing. this base pairing is similar to DNA replication except that the purine adenine (A) pairs with the pyrimidine uracil (U) instead of with thymine (T). starts in the nucleus, ends in the cytoplasm.

Front 57

translation

Back 57

the process by which genetic information in an mRNA molecule specifies the sequence of amino acids in the protein product. after the mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus, it is exported into the cytoplasm where it is attached to ribosomal RNA (rRNA). There, the transcribed genetic code is used to bring amino acids into a specific sequence that produces a protein with a clearly defined function. then, the mRNA strand directs protein translation with the help of tRNA subunits and their associated amino acids. During translation, the double helix of DNA makes new strands by base pairing.

Front 58

mRNA

Back 58

the template for protein synthesis; the form of RNA that carries information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome sites of protein synthesis in the cell

Front 59

rRNA

Back 59

the RNA part of a ribosome, and is essential for protein synthesis

Front 60

tRNA

Back 60

One of a class of RNA molecules that transport amino acids to ribosomes for incorporation into a polypeptide undergoing synthesis

Front 61

elongation

Back 61

peptide bonds are formed between the aligned amino acids that were positioned according to codon-anticodon association. elongation extends the polypeptide chain of the protein products by translation. elongation is then the addition of carbons (in two-carbon increments) to a fatty acid chain.

Front 62

post-translation

Back 62

the newly synthesized protein may require some chemical, structural, or spatial modification to attain its active form

Front 63

what do RNAs travel through in the membrane once they have been made?

Back 63

gap junctions

Front 64

in the glycolytic pathway, are most reactions reversible or irreversible?

Back 64

reversible

Front 65

Reversible reactions

Back 65

near equilibrium reactions,
same enzyme catalyses in both directions,

Front 66

near equilibrium reactions

Back 66

A <=> B. rate slows down if A is increased, if A is increased, B decreases (this is feedback inhibition)

Front 67

feedback inhibition

Back 67

A cellular control mechanism in which an enzyme that catalyzes the production of a particular substance in the cell is inhibited when that substance has accumulated to a certain level, thereby balancing the amount provided with the amount needed.

Front 68

example of when the same enzyme catalyzes in both directions

Back 68

pyruvate <-----> lactate
enzyme: LDH (lactate dehydrogenase)
NADH2 is being oxidized to NAD

Front 69

irreversible reactions

Back 69

non-equilibrium reactions (A-->B)
a different enzyme required to reverse
products of non-equilibrium reaction may be allosteric regulators

Front 70

allosteric regulator and example

Back 70

an effector that binds to a protein/enzyme to regulate it. example includes citrate, which is an allosteric regulator of glycolysis because its a product that occurred in a pathway that effected another pathway. when citrate (fat synthesis) in the TCA cycle increases, PFK and glycolysis decreases.

Front 71

classes of enzymes

Back 71

oxidoreductases
transferases
hydrolases
lyases
isomerases
ligases

Front 72

oxidoreductases

Back 72

dehydrogenaes (NADH2), reductases
enzymes are usually involved in transfer of hydrogens and electrons in Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Front 73

transferases

Back 73

transfer of carbon, nitrogen, or phosphate containing groups. example: protein metabolism, aminotransferases

Front 74

ALT means what?

Back 74

alanine amino transferase

Front 75

what do aminotransferases do?

Back 75

takes amine group (N) off of an amino acid and puts it on alpha keto acid

Front 76

amino acid 2 must be essential/nonessential because the body makes it?

Back 76

nonessential

Front 77

hydrolases

Back 77

C-C is broken by water

Front 78

lyases and example

Back 78

cleaving (breaking) C-C, C-N, and some C-S bonds
example: citrate (6 carbons) ---> OAA (4 C) + acetal (2 C)
enzyme: citrate lyase
breaking C-C bonds by going from 6C to 4C and 2C

Front 79

isomerases and example

Back 79

interconversion of atoms within a molecule
example: glucose-6P --> fructose-6P

Front 80

ligases and example

Back 80

synthase (joining things). formation of bonds between Carbon and other atoms (O, S, N)
example: pyruvate (3C) + CO2 (1C) ----> OAA (4C)
ATP --- ADP +Pi
usually involves hydrolysis of high energy phosphate compounds (the breakdown of ATP)

Front 81

what is the immediate energy source of the cell?

Back 81

ATP

Front 82

how many ATP does NADH2 produce?

Back 82

3 ATP

Front 83

how many ATP does FADH2 produce?

Back 83

2 ATP

Front 84

glucose vs. glycogen

Back 84

glycogen is the storage form of glucose

Front 85

true or false, the breakdown of CHO, Protein, and fat directly yields energy

Back 85

false - its from ATP first

Front 86

The structure of ATP

Back 86

3 phosphate groups attached to ribose and adenine (adosine triphosphate)

Front 87

what are high energy phosphate bonds and what do they bind?

Back 87

they are bonds in ATP that produce energy when broken
they bond gama~beta~alpha

Front 88

1 kcal = ? calories

Back 88

1000 calories

Front 89

1 cal = ? J (joules)

Back 89

4.18 J

Front 90

1 kcal = ? kJ

Back 90

4.18 kJ

Front 91

exothermic

Back 91

energy yielding/releasing (-deltaG)

Front 92

endothermic

Back 92

energy consuming (deltaG)

Front 93

each metabolic pathway is overall exothermic/endothermic? why?

Back 93

exothermic because they release energy

Front 94

substrate level phosphorylation

Back 94

phosphate from substrate is used in the formation of ATP and is dropped (NOT PLACED ON PRODUCT)

Front 95

what is oxidative phosphorylation and where does it take place?

Back 95

takes place in the electron transport chain. it is when electrons are getting passed down the chain and protons (H+) are getting pumped from the matrix into the inter membrane space. this pumping of H+ helps by creating enough energy to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. electrons and protons are passed through by redox reactions. energy is created with passively transported into the matrix.

Front 96

which produces more ATP and why? substrate level phosphorylation or oxidative phosphorylation?

Back 96

oxidative phosphorylation produces more ATP than substrate level phosphorylation because it involves NADH2 and FADH2 which, together create 5 ATP.

Front 97

how long is the digestive tract?

Back 97

16 ft. in length

Front 98

what are the layered (tunics) walls of the GI tract?

Back 98

mucosa
submucosa
muscularis externa
serosa

Front 99

mucosa

Back 99

1st set of cells lining the muscular tube. epithelial cells. brush boarder area (SI). comes in contact with food

Front 100

submucosa

Back 100

anchors mucosa to muscularis externa

Front 101

muscularis externa

Back 101

paristalsis occurs here. longitudinal and circular muscles.

Front 102

serosa

Back 102

outermost layer

Front 103

what are the structures of the upper GI tract?

Back 103

1. mouth (salivary glands)
2. pharynx passageway
3. esophagus (lower esophageal sphincter)
4. stomach (pyloric sphincter/valve) after stomach

Front 104

what are the salivary glands of the mouth mostly made up of? what are the 3 components?

Back 104

mostly made up of water
1. parotid, sublingual, submandibular (submaxillary)
2. alpha amylase (starts to break down starches in the mouth)
3. salivary IgA

Front 105

where does peristalsis occur?

Back 105

the esophagus

Front 106

what does the lower esophageal sphincter do?

Back 106

helps prevent foods from coming back up

Front 107

how much does the stomach hold when empty? how much does it hold when full?

Back 107

2 oz when empty, 37-52 oz when full

Front 108

what is the analogy used when the stomach gets rid of its contents in the SI?

Back 108

a pastry sleeve or toothpaste

Front 109

lingual lipase

Back 109

in infants, breaks down fat in the mouth

Front 110

what is the primary nutrient being broken down in the mouth

Back 110

CHO

Front 111

what are the 3 glands of the stomach

Back 111

cardiac glands
oxyntic
pyloric

Front 112

where are cardiac glands?

Back 112

upper part of the stomach- neck, endocrine cells

Front 113

where are oxyntic glands?

Back 113

neck, endocrine, parietal, chief cells

Front 114

where are pyloric glands?

Back 114

neck, endocrine, parietal

Front 115

what does the neck produce?

Back 115

mucus and bicarbonate

Front 116

what does endocrine produce?

Back 116

hormones

Front 117

what does parietal produce?

Back 117

secretes hydrochloric acid, which denature's protein sterolizers and converts pepsinogen to pepsin. it also secretes intrinsic factor, which helps absorb B12

Front 118

what does chief cells produce?

Back 118

secretes pepsinogen

Front 119

where does protein digestion mainly take place?

Back 119

mainly takes place in the stomach

Front 120

what are the structures of the lower GI tract?

Back 120

small intestine
large intestine

Front 121

what are the parts of the small intestine?

Back 121

duodenum
jejunum
ileum
esophagus

Front 122

how long is the duodenum?

Back 122

1 ft. long

Front 123

how long is the jejunum and ileum together?

Back 123

9 ft. long

Front 124

how long is the esophagus?

Back 124

5 ft. long

Front 125

how long is the total small intestine?

Back 125

15 ft. long

Front 126

where is the ileocecal value and what is it?

Back 126

on the right side of the body. it connects the Small Intestine to the Large intestine

Front 127

what are the parts of the large intestine?

Back 127

ascending colon
transverse colon
descending colon
sigmoid colon

Front 128

sigmoidoscopy

Back 128

looks at the large intestine for polyps

Front 129

what are accessary organs?

Back 129

not part of the digestive tract. it sends secretions through the sphincter of oddi into the duodenum of the SI

Front 130

what are the 4 accessary organs?

Back 130

liver
gall bladder
pancreas
salivary glands

Front 131

what does the liver do to aid in digestion?

Back 131

makes bile

Front 132

what does the gall bladder do to aid in digestion?

Back 132

concentrates and stores bile

Front 133

what are the cells in the pancreas?

Back 133

acinar cells
duct cells - bicarbonate
endocrine portion: alpha cells (glucagon) and beta cells (insulin)

Front 134

what do the salivary glands do to aid in digestion?

Back 134

secrete saliva

Front 135

the common hepatic duct joins with the cystic duct to form what duct?

Back 135

the common bile duct

Front 136

the common bile duct and the main pancreatic duct join to form what duct?

Back 136

the bile pancreatic duct

Front 137

the sphincter of oddi controls secretions of what 3 organs?

Back 137

liver, gall bladder, and pancreas

Front 138

what is the common point of the ducts?

Back 138

the sphincter of oddi

Front 139

where is the crypt of lieberkuhn located and what does it do?

Back 139

right at the bottom of the mucosa. it is involved in the production of epithelial cells (makes up intestinal wall)

Front 140

every ___ days, you turn over epithelial cells

Back 140

3 days

Front 141

where is the tenia coli and what is it?

Back 141

in descending colon. contracted-longitudinal muscle. peristalsis. produces haustra (pouches- not contracted portion of the colon)

Front 142

list the 10 regulatory peptides and hormones

Back 142

gastrin
cholecystokinin (CCK)
secretin
gastric inhibitory polypeptide
somatostatin
motilin
vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) (Bombesin)
neurotensin
substance P

Front 143

gastrin

Back 143

made in the G cells of the stomach. stimulates release of HCl and pepsinogen by the stomach. increases gastric/intestinal motility.

Front 144

cholecystokinin (CCK)

Back 144

made by "I" cells of proximal S.I. and released into the blood.
stimulates the release of enzymes from the pancreas, and bile from the gallbladder

Front 145

secretin

Back 145

secreted into the body by the S-cells of the proximal small intestine.
causes pancreatic acinar cells to release enzymes into the intestine (speeds up secretion)
inhibits motility of the GI tract (slows it down)

Front 146

gastric inhibitory polypeptide

Back 146

produced by the SI
inhibits (slows down) gastric secretions and motility
stimulates insulin secretion from pancreas

Front 147

somatostatin

Back 147

synthesized by pancreatic (Delta cells) and intestinal cells
inhibits or slows down motility and release of virtually all other GI hormones

Front 148

alpha cells release what hormone?

Back 148

glucagon

Front 149

beta cells release what hormone?

Back 149

insulin

Front 150

motilin

Back 150

made in the SI
causes contraction of intestinal smooth muscle

Front 151

vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

Back 151

a neuropeptide
present in neurons innervating the GI tract
stimulates intestinal secretions
relaxes sphincters
inhibits gastric acid secretion
stimulates bicarbonate release (in duct cells of the pancreas)

Front 152

gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) (Bombesin)

Back 152

a neuropeptide
released from neurons
stimulates release of HCl, gastrin, and CCK

Front 153

neurotensin

Back 153

a neuropeptide
produced by the SI mucosa but has no physical role at normal circulating concentrations
it MAY mediate gastric emptying and intestinal motility

Front 154

substance P

Back 154

a neuropeptide
increases blood flow to gut
inhibits HCl secretion and motility of SI
binds to acinar cells to increase enzyme release

Front 155

neuropeptides could be released at ___________ plexus and/or __________ plexus

Back 155

myenteric plexus and/or submucosal plexus

Front 156

where does the myentaric plexus lie? what does it control?

Back 156

lies in the muscularis externa between the longitudinal and circular muscles
it controls peristaltic activity and/or gastrointestinal motility

Front 157

where does the submucosal plexus lie? what does it control?

Back 157

it lies in the submucosa
it controls mainly gastrointestinal secretions and local blood flow

Front 158

what enzyme is in the mouth for the GI system? what does it do?

Back 158

salivary amylase
it breaks down alpha 1-4 starch
chemical CHO digestion

Front 159

what enzyme is in the stomach for the GI system? what does it do?

Back 159

pepsinogen (the inactive form) is a zymogen. HCl activates pepsinogen to make pepsin
involved in protein digestion

Front 160

what enzymes are in the pancreas for the GI system? what do they do?

Back 160

amylase- primary sight of starch (CHO) digestion is from pancreatic amylase
lipase- fat digestion
protease- protein digestion. examples include trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase A & B, proelastase, collagenase

Front 161

where do pancreas secretions have to go to?

Back 161

the SI

Front 162

what enzymes are in the SI for the GI system? what do they do?

Back 162

disaccharidases- break down lactose, maltose, and sucrose
aminopeptidases- breaks down peptide bonds between amino acids (dipeptides and tripeptides)

Front 163

what 3 elements make up carbohydrates?

Back 163

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Front 164

how many sugar molecules are in simple CHOs

Back 164

1 sugar molecule- monosaccharides
2 sugar molecules- disaccharides

Front 165

how many sugar molecules are in complex CHOs

Back 165

3-10 molecules- oligosaccharides
10+ molecules-polysaccharides

Front 166

how many carbons are in a triose and what is an example?

Back 166

3 carbons - glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

Front 167

how many carbons are in a pentose and what is an example?

Back 167

5 carbons - ribose

Front 168

how many carbons are in a hexose and what is an example?

Back 168

6 carbons - glucose, fructose, galactose

Front 169

what are examples of monosaccharides

Back 169

glucose, fructose, and galactose

Front 170

what are examples of disaccharides

Back 170

sucrose, lactose, and maltose

Front 171

what is sucrose made up of

Back 171

glucose and fructose

Front 172

what is lactose made up of

Back 172

galactose and glucose

Front 173

what is maltose made up of

Back 173

2 glucose units

Front 174

what are examples of polysaccharides

Back 174

plant starches, glycogen

Front 175

which gives the body more energy, glycogen or starch?

Back 175

glycogen, because your body breaks down A LOT MORE glucose in glycogen than in starch. because of this, glycogen gives you more energy

Front 176

what determines if a molecule is alpha or beta?

Back 176

the anomeric carbon

Front 177

what determines if a molecule is D or L?

Back 177

the chiral carbon

Front 178

what makes glucose and galactose's structures different?

Back 178

their hydroxyl group and Carbon 4

Front 179

what does "D" denote?

Back 179

the "OH" hydroxyl group is on the RIGHT on the highest chiral carbon

Front 180

what does "L" denote?

Back 180

the "OH" hydroxyl group is on the LEFT on the highest chiral carbon

Front 181

which is mostly in humans, D or L? why?

Back 181

D molecules are mostly in humans because the enzymes we have that break them down mainly break down D sugars

Front 182

for the cyclized fisher projection, alpha is when the anomeric hydroxyl is positioned on the right/left? in the haworth, it is up/down?

Back 182

alpha is RIGHT; down

Front 183

for the cyclized fisher projection, beta is when the anomeric hydroxyl is positioned on the right/left?

Back 183

beta is LEFT; up

Front 184

glycosidic bond

Back 184

when 2 glucoses (monosaccharides) are bonded

Front 185

what comes off of the glycosidic bond

Back 185

h20 (metabolic water)

Front 186

where do enzymes start breaking down glycogen in glycogenalysis?

Back 186

the nonreducing ends

Front 187

what bond is amylose; amylopectine

Back 187

alpha 1-4; alpha 1-4 and 1-6

Front 188

what is the most important monosaccharide in our body? why?

Back 188

glucose, because nearly all food is converted to glucose for further metabolism

Front 189

what cells are involved in pancreatic amylase?

Back 189

acimar cells of the pancreas

Front 190

starch breaks down into what?

Back 190

maltose and the rest of the polysaccharide

Front 191

what three enzymes are present in the brush boarder area?

Back 191

sucrase, lactase, and maltase

Front 192

where is the primary spot of digestion?

Back 192

in the small intestine by alpha-amylase (pancreatic amylase)

Front 193

what cells align the vili in the brush boarder area

Back 193

absorptive cells

Front 194

what does the food travel down in the SI

Back 194

the lumen

Front 195

enterocytes

Back 195

intestinal cells. cells between the brush boarder area and the basolateral membrane

Front 196

each vilus finger is outfitted with a ________ and a _________.

Back 196

capillary and a lacteal

Front 197

the capillary takes up fat/water soluble nutrients and takes them to the ___________. what is the system that it is involved in? give examples of things it takes up

Back 197

the capillary, which is part of the vascular/portal system, takes up water soluble nutrients and takes them to the liver. examples of water soluble nutrients include small fatty acids, B vitamins, vitamin C, and CHO such as glucose, fructose, and galactose

Front 198

the lacteal takes up fat/water soluble nutrients and takes them to the ___________. what is the system that it is involved in? give examples of things it takes up

Back 198

the lacteal, which is part of the lymphatic system, takes up fat soluble nutrients, bypasses the liver, goes to the thoracic duct which drains into the abdomen and the subclavian vein. examples of fat soluble nutrients include large FA, monoglycerides, vitamin A, D, E, and K

Front 199

what is the purpose of the microvili

Back 199

to absorb nutrients with the maximum surface area

Front 200

what units are absorbed at the brush boarder area?

Back 200

glucose, fructose, and galactose

Front 201

are nutrients absorbed before or after they cross over the brush boarder area?

Back 201

after

Front 202

why doesn't milk get digested in the mouth?

Back 202

because its digestive enzymes are in the small intestine

Front 203

what happens in the stomach to CHO digestion?

Back 203

the stomach inactivates CHO digestion because HCl is inactivating salivary amylase

Front 204

the bulk of what you eat in cereal and milk gets broken down in the_____________.

Back 204

stomach

Front 205

what breaks down starches

Back 205

alpha amylase

Front 206

what are the two types of starches

Back 206

amylose and amylopectin

Front 207

what percentage of starches are amylose? amylopectin?

Back 207

amylose- 15-20%; amylopectin- 80-85%

Front 208

what makes up amylose; amylopectin

Back 208

amylose- maltose and maltotriose; amylopectin- isomaltose, maltose, and maltotriose

Front 209

what is maltotriose

Back 209

3 glucose units alpha 1-4

Front 210

what is maltose

Back 210

2 glucose units alpha 1-4

Front 211

what is isomaltose

Back 211

2 glucose units alpha 1-6

Front 212

what are the two names for the thing that breaks down isomaltose

Back 212

isomaltase and alpha dextrinase

Front 213

what breaks down maltose and maltotriose

Back 213

maltase

Front 214

what is forms when isomaltase breaks down isomaltose and maltase breaks down maltose and maltotriose?

Back 214

glucose

Front 215

most of the maltose is generated from the break down of __________.

Back 215

starch

Front 216

what are the final products in the lumen of the small intestine before they cross the brush border area?

Back 216

glucose, fructose, and galactose

Front 217

what are the brush border enzymes

Back 217

sucrase, lactase, and maltase

Front 218

amylase only works on ______ bonds

Back 218

alpha 1-4

Front 219

where is most of a starch broken down in the body?

Back 219

the stomach

Front 220

glucose and galactose in the lumen use a transporter to go across the brush border area and get into the _________________

Back 220

intestinal cells

Front 221

glut transporters uses active transport/facilitated diffusion

Back 221

facilitated diffusion

Front 222

true or false, all of the glut transporters do the same thing, but function in different tissues

Back 222

true

Front 223

what does SGLT 1 stand for it, and what does it do?

Back 223

sodium glucose transporter. it uses active transport to absorb glucose and galactose. SGLT 1 simultaneously transports two substances (Na+ and glucose or galactose) in the same direction. when Na+ is released inside the cell, the carrier's affinity for glucose is decreased, and the glucose is released into the cell. Na+/K+ -ATPase then "pumps" the Na+ ions back out of the cell.

Front 224

is SGLT 1 a glut transporter? why?

Back 224

no, because its not facilitated diffusion, its active transport

Front 225

what is GLUT 5? does it depend on insulin? is it a fast or slow transporter?

Back 225

glut transporter. uses facilitated diffusion to absorb fructose. it is non-insulin depended. it is a slower transport than glucose and galactose

Front 226

what is GLUT 2? does it depend on insulin?

Back 226

glut transporter. located at the basolateral membrane. takes glucose and galactose and absorbs them into the intestinal epithelium from the lumen and then to the blood. glut 2 transport fructose only from the intestinal epithelium into the blood. they enter the portal blood and go to the liver. it is non-insulin dependent. has a high affinity for both glucose and fructose. when the body takes in too much glucose and insulin levels are high, GLUT 2 is translocated, so that more glucose is not absorbed.

Front 227

GLUT 4- what does it transport into the muscle and adipose tissue? is it noninsulin/insulin dependent and does it requires active transport/facilitated transport?

Back 227

transports glucose
insulin-dependent and facilitated transport.

Front 228

if in the FED state, there is a lot/little amount of ATP present

Back 228

a lot

Front 229

true or false, some fructose and galactose enter the glycolytic pathway in the liver

Back 229

false, ALL fructose and galactose enter the glycolytic pathway in the liver

Front 230

___________ enters glycolysis according to energy status

Back 230

glucose

Front 231

what happens to the remaining glucose if it is not needed in the glycolytic pathway?

Back 231

it passes through and goes into the systemic blood

Front 232

if glucose doesn't go through PFK, what can it be used as?

Back 232

storage

Front 233

true or false, some energy pathways shut down while others are still working?

Back 233

false, ALL energy pathways are participating, but some stages are predominant over others

Front 234

where does glucose go to first in the body? then where?

Back 234

the liver then blood glucose

Front 235

what is the 1st priority for blood glucose to go?
2nd priority? 3rd priority? what happens if you have diabetes?

Back 235

1st- other tissues
2nd- muscle glycogen and liver glycogen
3rd- adipose tissue (fat deposits)
if one has diabetes, kidney excretion in urine is increased (its negligible in normal circumstances)

Front 236

what happens to glucose when it goes to muscle glycogen?

Back 236

it can't be converted to free glucose because it lacks gluco-6-phosphatase, so it enters glycolysis

Front 237

what happens to glucose when it goes to liver glycogen?

Back 237

it breaks down glycogen into free glucose in the blood because gluco-6-phosphatase is present

Front 238

where are the most and the least amount of stores of CHO? where is the other place that it is stored?

Back 238

the most stores of CHO is in the muscles (muscle glycogen)
the least stores are in the blood (blood glucose)
it can also be stored in the liver (liver glycogen)

Front 239

what is the DRI (AMDR- Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges) percent of total calories for CHO intake?

Back 239

45-65% of total kcals should come from CHO

Front 240

what does ACSM (american college of sports medicine) recommend for CHO intake for endurance athletes?
1. % of kcals
2. grams per kg BW daily (maintenance)
3. grams per kg BW x3 days during loading (before marathon)

Back 240

1. 70% of kcals from CHO
2. 5-8g per kg BW daily for maintenance
3. 9-11g per kg BW x3 days during loading (before marathon)

Front 241

what is the best way to calculate CHO intake for endurance athletes?

Back 241

grams per body weight

Front 242

within how many hours after an intense workout should you drink gatorade and why?

Back 242

within 2 hours to replenish glycogen stores (to max glycogen synthesis)

Front 243

what % of CHO solution is recommended for people exercising more than 1 hour?

Back 243

5-10% CHO solution

5-10g/100mL

Front 244

true or false, don't eat CHO 1 hour before a race, but its okay to have CHO after start of race

Back 244

true

Front 245

what is the enzyme used on glucose in step 1 of glycolysis and what does it produce?

Back 245

hexokinase (glucokinase if in liver)
produces glucose 6-Phosphate

Front 246

what enzyme is used on glucose 6-phosphate and what does it produce?

Back 246

glucosephosphate isomerase
produces fructose 6-phosphate

Front 247

what enzyme is used on fructose 6-phosphate and what does it produce?

Back 247

phosphofructokinase (PFK)
produces fructose 1,6 bis-phosphate

Front 248

what is PFK

Back 248

the rate limiting enzyme/ regulatory step

Front 249

what happens beyond PFK?

Back 249

beyond this step, you are committed to going to glycolysis

Front 250

what happens to PFK and the pathway if a lot of ATP is present (like in a FED state)

Back 250

PFK slows down, and there is a shift in the pathway to predominance of glycogen synthesis (storage)

Front 251

what enzyme is used on fructose 1,6 bis-phosphate and what does it produce?

Back 251

aldolase
produces DHAP + glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Front 252

what enzyme interconverts DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-P?

Back 252

triosephosphate isomerase

Front 253

what is different about step 4, with fructose 1,6 bis-phosphate as the substrate?

Back 253

it forms 2 products (it splits)
P at 1 and 6 Carbon
after this, all ATP produced is doubled

Front 254

which, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or DHAP is mostly formed in humans?

Back 254

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Front 255

what enzyme is used on glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and what does it produce?

Back 255

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
produces 1,3 bis-phosphate-glycerate

Front 256

after what step is the first high energy bond formed?

Back 256

step 6 (it is in 1,3 bis-P-glycerate)

Front 257

what happens for the first time in step 7?

Back 257

the high energy bond with phosphate is dropped from the substrate and is used to produce ATP. however, it does not go onto the product. this is substrate level phosphorylation

Front 258

what enzyme is used on 1,3 bis-P-glycerate and what does it produce?

Back 258

phosphoglycerate kinase
produces 3-P-glycerate

Front 259

what does "kinase" mean?

Back 259

phosphorylated

Front 260

what are the things that slow down PFK

Back 260

a lot of ATP
a lot of citrate from the TCA cycle

Front 261

what enzyme is used on 3-P-glycerate and what does it produce?

Back 261

phosphoglycerate mutase
2-P-glycerate

Front 262

what enzyme is used on 2-P-glycerate and what does it produce?

Back 262

enolase (dehydration because removed H20)
produces PEP

Front 263

what enzyme is used on PEP and what does it produce?

Back 263

pyruvate kinase
produces pyruvate

Front 264

what enzyme is used on pyruvate and what does it produce?

Back 264

LDH (lactate dehydrogenase)
produces lactate

Front 265

true or false, the NAD+ produced in step 11 is recycled back into step 6

Back 265

true

Front 266

true or false, the more prevalent entry for fructose is through hexokinase, so more fructose 6-P is generated compared to fructose 1-P

Back 266

false! the more prevalent entry for fructose is through fructokinase, so more fructose 1-P is generated compared to fructose 6-P

Front 267

true or false, fructose to fructose 1-P bi-passes PFK

Back 267

true

Front 268

what is glycogenesis, and where does it occur?

Back 268

it is the making of new glycogen
it happens in the cytosol of the muscle and liver cells
it happens in the muscle and liver because that is where the making and storage of glycogen occurs

Front 269

glycogenesis happens as a result of what?

Back 269

too much ATP, a big production of citrate, PFK slowed down, or if glycolysis is slowed down

Front 270

glycogenesis is influenced by insulin/glucagon, epinephrine, or norepinephrine and occurs in the fasted or exercising/FED state?

Back 270

glycogenesis is influenced by insulin because it occurs in the FED state and in the FED state (after you eat), insulin is produced. insulin induces the hexokinase and glucokinase enzymes

Front 271

what enzyme is used on glucose 6-P in glycogenesis and what does it produce?

Back 271

phosphoglucomutase
produces glucose 1-P

Front 272

In order for glucose 1-P to because UDP-glucose, what must happen?

Back 272

uridine triphosphate (UTP) must be hydrolyzed, becoming inorganic pirophosphate (PPi), to allow uridine monophosphate (UMP) to attach to glucose 1-P, becoming UDP-glucose

Front 273

what is the key structure in glycogen formation

Back 273

UDP-glucose

Front 274

true or false, in glycogenesis, glycogen starts out branched and then becomes unbranched

Back 274

false, glycogen is unbranched and then becomes branched

Front 275

what is the starting point, the primer, which is premade, so that more glucose units can be added to the structure? it accepts glucose units

Back 275

glycogenin

Front 276

what is recycled as glucose units are added in glycogenesis?

Back 276

UDP

Front 277

what enzyme is used on glycogenin to add glucose units?

Back 277

glucosyl transferase (glycogenin)

Front 278

what enzyme is used on glycogenin with the original glucose units attached to it in order to attach more glucose units that can be branched?

Back 278

glycogen synthase and branching enzyme

Front 279

what is glycogenolysis and where does it occur?

Back 279

the break down of glycogen
it occurs in the cytosol of the muscle and liver

Front 280

glycogenolysis is influenced by insulin/glucagon, epinephrine, or norepinephrine and occurs in the fasted or exercising/FED state?

Back 280

it is influenced by the catabolic hormones: glucagon, epinephrine, and norephinephrine. it occurs in the fasted or exercising state

Front 281

what do catabolic hormones generate?

Back 281

glycogen phosphorylase

Front 282

is glucagon fast or slow acting?
what does glucagon target?

Back 282

glucagon is slow acting
it targets liver tissue

Front 283

is epinephrine slow or fast acting?

Back 283

fast acting

Front 284

true or false, glycogenolysis is the same as putting glucose into storage

Back 284

false, it is the opposite of putting glucose into strorage; it is the break down of glycogen

Front 285

what enzyme allows a glucose unit to cleave so that a phosphate group can be put onto carbon1 in glycogenolysis? what does it produce?

Back 285

glycogen phosphorylase
produces glucose 1-P and the residual (rest of the) glycogen chain

Front 286

what enzyme acts on glucose 1-P to produce glucose 6-P?

Back 286

phosphoglucomutase

Front 287

in both the liver and muscle, can glucose 6-P become glucose? why or why not?

Back 287

only in the liver can glucose 6-P become glucose because the liver has the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase; however, the muscle does not have this enzyme. so, the liver can create glucose, but the muscle cannot.

Front 288

define glycemic index

Back 288

an increase in blood glucose levels above baseline over a 2 hour period for a given amount of CHO (usually 50g) verses the same amount in a reference food (glucose or white bread)

Front 289

you don't want to consume CHO within an hour before a race event because it could cause what?

Back 289

hypoglycemia

Front 290

what happens to insulin if you eat a high GI food?

Back 290

you produce more insulin, so your insulin levels increase in order to bring glucose down

Front 291

define glycemic load

Back 291

the quantity and quality of carbohydrate in a meal specifically taking the GI and multiplying it by grams of CHO in a serving of food

Front 292

what diseases can result from having a high glycemic load over time?

Back 292

diabetes or heart disease (CHD)

Front 293

does a high glycemic load affect someone who is very physically active as much as someone who is sedentary? why?

Back 293

no, because physically active people utilize it