Adolescent Psych E1

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adolescence is defined as (timing wise)

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second decade of someone's life

takes 2-6 years to complete

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age groups: early adolescence

middle adolescence

late adolescence

emerging adulthood

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10-13

14-17

18-21

18-25

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arguments against emerging adulthood

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little evidence that it's universal

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3 fundamental features of adolescent development

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biological, social, cognitive

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main physical manifestations of puberty

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rapid acceleration in growth

development of primary sex characteristics

development of secondary sex characteristics (body hair, breasts, etc)

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bronfenbrenner's perspective

ecological perspective on human development

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must take all levels into account-impacts everyone differently

microsystem (family/peer group), mesosystem (two or more microsystems linking), exosystem (setting in which one lives), macrosystem (history, culture)

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psychosocial basic developmental challenges during adolescence

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identity, autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, achievement-always there but but special development

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biosocial view of adolescene

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hormonal activity and bodily changes is the only defining characteristics-ignores environment

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G. Stanley Hall view on adolescence

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biosocial

biological and genetic-not much environment influence

inevitable outcome of the physical changes in puberty-necessarily a period of stress

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organismic view on adolescence

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biosocial+context

interaction between biology and environment

freud, erikson, piaget

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freud's view on adolescence vs erikson vs piaget

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organismic-going though psychosexual development vs psychosocial vs cognitive

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behaviorists view on adolescence

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figuring out which behaviors are rewarded and which are not

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social learning theorists view on adolescence

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look at parents and peers and learn from observation how to operate in world

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sociological theorists view on adolescence

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adolescents as a group:

adolescent marginality-disempowered members of society

intergenerational conflict

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historical and anthropological theorists view on adolescence

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too much variance, not much point in examining. invention of society, not a real thing

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what is puberty

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interaction between genes and environment, period when individual is prepared for reproduction

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function of endocrine system

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produces, circulates and regulates levels of hormones

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hormones

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specialized substances secreted by endocrine glands and enter the bloodstream

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glands

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organs that stimulate body to respond in specific ways

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hormonal feedback loop (HPG axis)

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maintains steady levels of hormones-becomes increasingly important during adolescence

hypothalamus----pituitary gland---gonads----androgens and estrogens---back to hypothalamus

gonads release sex hormones into bloodstream, hypothalamus monitors levels

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androgens vs estrogens

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men produce more androgens, women produce more estrogens

progesterone: unisex hormone, regulates menstrual cycle, helps convert one type of hormone to another

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adrenarche

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maturation of adrenal glands-causes bodily changes and reactions to stress

first phase of puberty.

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stress hormone

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cortisol

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adolescence as an inherently stressful time?

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no, heightened vulnerability to stress

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two roles hormones play

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organizational: prenatal hormones program brain to be masculine or feminine. patterns of behavior that are a result may not appear until adolescence

activational: changes in hormone levels activate changes

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somatic changes

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growth spurt, sex differences in far and muscle: muscle to fat ratio of boys: 3 to 1. of girls, 5 to 4, body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls

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peak height velocity

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time at which the adolescent is growing the fastest

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epiphysis

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closing at the ends of bones, terminates growth

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difference in growth spurt timing between sexes

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boys 2 years later than girls

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how can we explain individual differences in pubertal maturation

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interaction between environment and genetics

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secular trend

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tendency for puberty to start earlier over past 2 centuries

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approaches researches use to examine psychological and social impacts

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cross sectional studies (members of different age groups), longitudinal studies (follow group of them as they age)

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effect of puberty on sleep patterns

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delayed phase preference-go to bed, wake up later

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basal metabolism rate

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resting metabolism. drops during adolescence

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leptin

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protein produced by fat cells than may have an influence on the onset of puberty-not having enough fat on body can delay onset

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tanner stages

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development of secondary sex characteristics-all characteristics have 5 stages

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menarche

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first menstration

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hormones and moodiness

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due to fluctuation rather than presence. mainly environmental influence

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early maturation in girls and boys

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girls: problem behavior, psychological distress, emotional difficulties

boys: popularity, higher self esteem, problem behavior

(depends on social context)

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binge eating disorder

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binge and then go on extreme weight loss programs

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leading cause of death

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accidents-most important health problems are related to behaviors

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changes in cognition

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thinking about possibilities

deductive reasoning

hypothetical thinking (if--then, thinking about future)

thinking about abstract concepts (puns, metaphors, etc)

metacognition

thinking in multiple dimensions (sarcasm)

adolescent relativism (shades of gray > b&W)

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adolescent egocentrism

imaginary audience

personal fable

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result of metacognition

extreme self-absorption due to developing intellectual skills:

imaginary audience: heightened self consciousness, imagines they are center of everyone's attention

personal fable: belief that their experiences are unique (you don't understand)

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piaget's theory of cognitive development

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qualitative, stage-theory approach, formal operations is last one starts in adolescence.

chief feature: deductive reasoning and abstract logic-cognitive development view based off it

shortcomings: little evidence for stages over continuous

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information processing perspective

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quantitative

5 areas of improvement during adolescence:

1. attention: selective attention and divided attention

2. memory: working (short term), long term memory and autobiographical memory (remembering meaningful events)

3. speed: increase in info processing

4. organization: developing strategies, etc

5. metacognition

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age cognitive development plateaus

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15

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how changes in brain structure are reflection

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structure (physical form/composition)

function (patterns of activity)

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neurons, neurotransmitters and synapses

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neurons carry info by transmitting electrical charges (neurotransmitters) to other neurons across gaps (synapses)

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myelination

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process through which brain circuits are insulated with myelin, improves efficiency of brain processing

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parts of the brain remodeled during adolescence

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synaptic pruning and myelination:

prefrontal cortex: sophisticated thinking abilities

parietal cortex: working memory

temporal cortex: memory and thinking about other people's thoughts

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limbic system

connectivity between limbic system and prefrontal cortex

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limbic system: processing social and emotional

connectivity=development of social info processing, reward and punishment and emotional capacity

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3 parts of prefrontal cortex

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dorsolateral cortex: outer and upper. impulse and planning

ventromedial cortex: lower and central. gut level decision making

orbitofrontal cortex: front. risk and reward evaluation

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functional connectivity

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brain regions coordinating, improves during adolescence

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risk and reward basics

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puberty: changes in way brain is affected by dopamine and serotonin early on. gap in timing between changes and between prefrontal cortex development (later in puberty)

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Sternberg's triarchic theory

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3 interrelated types of happiness:

1. componential intelligence: acquiring, storing and processing info. book smarts

2. experiential intelligence: insight and creativity

3. contextual intelligence: ability to think practically. street smarts

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gardener's theory of multiple intelligences

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7 types:

verbal

mathematical

spatial

kinesthetic

self reflective

interpersonal

musical

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Vygotsky's perspective of intelligence

zone of proximal development

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broader context of intelligence-influence of environment

zone: level of challenge within skills but enough to push

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social cognition

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concerns thinking about others, interpersonal relations-improves during adolescence

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4 most often studied aspects of social cognition

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1. theory of mind: ability to understand that others have different beliefs, intentions and knowledge. (through mentalizing-ability to understand another's mental state)

2. thinking about relationships (authority, exclusion)

3. social conventions-understanding, not necessarily agreeing with

4. laws, civil liberties and rights-interaction between individual and society

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behavioral decision theory of risk taking

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make decisions on cost/benefit basis. steps:

1. identify alternatives

2. identify consequences

3. evaluate cost/benefits

4. assessing likelihoods

5. combining all steps to make a decision

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feelings of invincibility

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theory but no substantial evidence to support

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difference between adults and adolescents in risk taking

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different values/priorities

emotional and contextual influences on decisions

efforts to stop risk taking usually ineffective

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social redefinition

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process through which someone's position/status in society is determined

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age of majority

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age at which individuals are recognized as an adult

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inventionists perspective on adolescence

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invention. didn't exist until industrial revolution

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5 main features of emerging adulthood

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1. exploration of identities

2. instability in relationships, work and living arrangements

3. focus on self/furthering independence

4. subjective feeling of being between stages

5. subjective sense of possibility

only present in cultures where they don't necessarily need to be adults yet

lack of research about wellbeing-most say period of good mental health

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common practices in process of social redefinition in adolescence

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real/symbolic separation from parents

emphasis on differences between the sexes

passing of info from older generation

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ways in which cultures vary in social redefinition

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clarity: when does the transition actually happen. very unclear in US, adolescents have varying views. traditional cultures: usually very clear with formal initiation ceremonies

continuity: continuous transitions vs discontinuous transitions. contemporary=discontinuous, traditional=continuous

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collective efficacy

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how much neighbors trust each other

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how neighborhoods affect adolescents

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1. influencing norms exposed to

2. altering nature of interpersonal relationships inside and outside family

3. controlling access to resources

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generational gap in opinions

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no difference between core values but only in personal taste

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how familial conflict arises

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personal taste differences-parents more into custom/tradition

biological, cognitive and social transitions of adolescent and midlife crisis of parents

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family systems theory

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perspective on family functioning that emphasizes interconnections between family members

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familism

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orientation toward life that emphasizes family over individual

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generational dissonance

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divergence in views between adolescents and parents-common in immigrant families

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dimensions of parenting

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parental responsiveness: degree to which a parent responds to child's needs in an accepting, supportive manner

parental demandingness: degree to which parent expects and insists on mature, responsible behavior from the child

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4 styles of parenting:

authoritative

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high demandingness and responsiveness

warmth, firm control, rational, issue oriented discipline, emphasis on self direction

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4 styles of parenting:

authoritarian

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high demandingness, low responsiveness

punitive, absolute and forceful discipline, premium on obedience and conformity

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4 styles of parenting:
indulgent

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high responsiveness, low demandingness

passive in terms of discipline. premium on child's happiness

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4 styles of parenting:

indifferent

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low responsiveness and demandingness

neglectful, little interaction with child

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effects of parenting styles:

authoritative

why?

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best one.

psychosocially mature, responsible, self assured, creative, intellectually curious, socially skilled, academically successful

balance between restriction and autonomy

engaging in give and take

warm relationship

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effects of parenting styles:

authoritarian

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dependent, passive, less socially skilled, less self assured, less intellectual curiousity

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effects of parenting styles:

indulgent

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less mature and responsible, conforming with peers

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effects of parenting styles:

indifferent

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impulsive, delinquent behavior

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behavioral genetics

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scientific study of genetic influences on behavior

studies twins, adopted children etc

genes may shape tendencies, but whether they're actualized or not depends on environment

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environmental influences between siblings

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shared and nonshared. non shared influences more significant

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sibling deidentification

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deliberately trying to be different than each other

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factors resulting in more diversified families than the past

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changes in trends for divorce, remarriage, single parenthood, poverty

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effect of divorce on adolescents

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small in magnitude

quality of relationships with adults > number of them

problems arise from the process: heightened conflict, disorganization and stress, etc rather than actual divorce/resulting family structure

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biggest factor influencing adolescent adjustment

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home relationships

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participant observation

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research technique, infiltrate group of individuals in order to observe

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ethnography

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type of research-observe in natural setting

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2 dimensions adolescent social groups are mapped on

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how involved they are in adult institutions (school etc)

how involved they are in peer cultures

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what adolescent cliques are based on

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age, sex, and ethnic segregation

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3 factors in determining clique membership and friendship patterns

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1. orientation toward school

2. orientation toward same teen culture

3. involvement in antisocial activity

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iatrogenic effects

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unintended diverse consequences of treatment/intervention. treatment for antisocial activity leads to more antisocial activity

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sociometric vs perceived popularity

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sociometric: how well like one is

perceived: how much status/prestige some has

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3 different types of aggression

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1. instrumental aggression: deliberate and more planned. generally better liked individuals than:

2. reactive aggression: unplanned and impulsive

3. relational aggression: acts intended to harm through manipulation of their relationship with others.

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hostile attributional bias

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tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as hostile--central role in aggressive behavior of rejected adolescents.

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3 types of adolescents who are rejected by peers

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1. aggressive-difficulty controlling emotions

2. withdrawn

3. withdrawn and aggressive

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influences of being rejected by peers

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higher risk for psychological and behavioral problems

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interventions for rejected teens goal

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improve social competence

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problematic peer relationships

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problematic peer relationships lead to psychological and behavioral problems and vice versa. cycle.

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individualistic vs collective cultures

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individualistic: western. encourage independence, personal motives and desires to achieve goals, emphasize unique individual differences and being assertive

collective: latin america, asia, middle east. encourage interdependence, group values/goals above individual, status oriented behavior, idea of belonging

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biological, psychological and sociological definitions of adolescence

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biological: onset of puberty

psychological: changes due to social expectations, biological changes and cognitive maturation

sociological: definition based on status, protected by legislation.

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2 categories of perspectives

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constructive perspective: each level of functioning we construct out knowledge of the world based on experience and interpretation of other's intents. depends on prior info and personality of observer

contextual perspective: development is dictated by ethnicity and culture (Bronfenbrenner's theory)

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adolescence and life span perspective

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life span perspective: the view that development is continuous and changes throughout life

developmental issues may follow an individual from childhood to adulthood

no matter differences in life circumstances between generation, many parallels

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goadarche

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development of gonads, signaled by hypothalamus, starts around 9-10

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4 signals for the HPG axis to kick in

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1. presence of mature sexual partners

2. nutritional resources

3. physically mature enough to begin reproducing

4. having enough leptin

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ethnic differences in timing of pubertal maturation in women

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black girls earliest, latino, then caucasion.

may be due to exposure to chemicals that stimulate earlier puberty

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causes of early pubertal maturation in girls

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presence of stepfather, childhood abuse, familial conflict, growing up without a father

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3 ways biological changes can affect adolescent behavior

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hormonal changes----changes in behavior

hormonal changes----changes in appearance----changes in self image----changes in behavior

hormonal changes----changes in appearance----changes in others reactions----changes in behavior

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immediate impact of puberty

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physical changes---self image, mood and relationship with parents

self esteem-white girls particularly bad self esteem

moodiness-more fluctuations throughout the day than adults

strained family relationship

changes in sleep patterns

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consequences of inadequate sleep

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poorer mental health

delinquency

injuries

overweight

poor school performance

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IQ tests

two examples

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most widely used & misused psychological instrument

score of 100 is average

exclusive focus on school smarts

wechsler intelligence scale for adults

wechsler intelligence scale for children

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test performance in adolescence and childhood

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mental abilities increase through childhood and adolescence but intelligence test scores are stable during childhood and adolescence

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psychosocial development associated with social redefinition

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identity, autonomy, intimacy/dating/marriage, achievement

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changes in status during adolescence

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two sided alteration: increasing privileges and responsibility

legal boundaries-new set of laws and treatment

ability to participate in activities reserved for adults

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social redefinition in contemporary society:

3 trajectories

2 societal trends reshaping the nature of transition

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trajectory possibilities: one for the "haves", "have nots" and in between

trends: increasing length of transition

increasing demand for more formal education (increase the division between haves and have nots)

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impact of growing up in poor urban communities

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more likely to:

be sexually active at an earlier age

teen pregnancy

crime

drop out

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6 things that can be done to ease the transition into adult work

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1. restructure secondary edu

2. expand work and volunteering opportunities

3. improve the quality of community life for adolescents and their parents

4. expand opportunities in the workplace to make high school and bridge to adulthood

5. encourage adolescents to spent time volunteering

6. facilitate mentoring programs for at risk youth

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ethnic differences in parenting styles

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authoritative parenting most common among white families

demanding and controlling styles more common among minorities

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autonomy in the family

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adolescents who are allowed autonomy develop higher self esteem and more mature coping abilities

not allowed--at risk for low self esteem and depression

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sibling relationships during adolescence

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early puberty-increased conflict

over the course of puberty they become more equal, distant and less emotionally intense

quality of relationship affected by parent child relationship

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long term effects of divorce

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sleeper effects: higher levels of educational and behavioral problems than children not from divorced families

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immediate problems from divorce more prevalent among

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boys

younger children

temperamental children

children who don't have supportive relationships with adults outside the immediate family

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cliques vs crowds

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cliques: 2-12 individuals defined by common activities or just by friendship

crowds: larger, more vaguely defined groups based on reputation

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changing structure of crowds

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become more differentiated, more permeable, less hierarchal

changes allow adolescents more freedom to change crowds, enhance status

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crowds as reference groups

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contribute to the definition of norms and standards for culture

provides a basis for an adolescent's identity

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4 ways adolescent behavior is affected by crowds

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1. youth imitate the behavior of high status peers

2. establish social norms

3. reinforce social norms

4. when adolescents are reinforced for following a crowd's norm, further incorporate said norms and membership identity

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role of family in friendship choice

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parents socialize certain traits that predispose teens toward certain crowds

crowds reward them for traits that led them there in the first place

traits are strengthened

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stability of friendships over time

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moderate stability

more stable during later years

actual composition of clique may change but defining characteristics don't

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4 categories of harassment victims

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1. passive

2. support seeking

3. aggressive

4. mixture

passive tends to be best approach

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harassment in person vs online

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harassment can be experienced directly or indirectly for both

traditional bullies also engage in cyberbullying

cyberbullying less common

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adolescents under 18 being tried as adults in court system for serious crimes

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controversial-inconsistencies in where we draw age boundaries.

potentially incompetent to stand trial due to cognitive and emotional immaturity.

competence to stand court should be evaluated before

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how does hypothetical reasoning impact social relations?

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imagine what others are thinking/feeling

anticipate how one might react, can adjust accordingly

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piaget/cognitive development:

4 stages and age range

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1. sensorimotor period: birth-2

2. preoperational period: 2-5

3. concrete operations: 6-early adolescence

4. formal operations: early adolescence-adulthood

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relation between synaptic growth/pruning and intelligence

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longer period of growth/more dramatic pruning=higher intelligence

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most important changes that take place in brain functioning of adolescents

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activation within prefrontal cortex and functional connectivity

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controversy of circumcision

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female circumcision-health problems, physically disfiguring and psychologically scarring