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32 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the difference between stochastic and nonstochastic theories?
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Stochastic (error) theories suggest that aging events occur randomly and accumulate with time.
-Wear & Tear, Cross-Linkage, Free Radical Nonstochastic theories consider aging to be predetermined. -Programmed Aging, Gene Theory, Immunity Theory |
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Stochastic Theories
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The error theories propose that aging is a result of an accumulation of errors in the synthesis of cellular deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), the basic building blocks of the cell With each replication, more errors occur until the cell can no longer function and dies.
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Wear-and-Tear Theory
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Proposes that errors result when cells wear out over time because of continued use. Cells are aggravated by the harmful effects of internal and external stressors, which include injurious metabolic by-products. These may cause a progressive decline in cellular function and the death of an increasing number of cells.
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Cross-Linkage Theory
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This theory describes aging in terms of the accumulation of errors through a process of cross-linking, or stiffening of proteins in the body. Cross-linking is initiated by blood glucose as it attaches itself to a protein, causing a chain reaction of bonding or “cross-linking” between protein molecules. As they link, they become stiff and thick and less able to function.
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Free Radical Theory
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Free radicals are randomly produced natural by-products of cellular metabolism of oxygen and are always present to some extent. They are molecules that contain unpaired ions (electrical charge) and are highly reactive to molecules in the cell membrane. As the free ion charge latches onto other molecules, damage occurs, especially to the membranes of unsaturated lipids such as mitochondria and lysosomes. The body produces antioxidant substances to counter these effects, but it is believed that, with aging, more free radicals are produced and the ability of the body to counter the effects of them is decreased as well.
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Nonstochastic Theories
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Those in which the changes of aging are attributed to a process that is programmed and thought to be predetermined.
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Programmed Theory
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Begins with the assumption that the cell and organism have a genetically determined life span and life process
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Immunity Theory
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In this case, the emphasis is on the senescence of the immune cells from the damage from the proliferation of free radicals. Animal studies have demonstrated that the cells of the immune system become increasingly more diversified with age and predictably lose some of their self-regulatory ability. Age-related changes in the immune system lead to decreased efficiency and is seen clinically as reduced immune functioning and may be associated with increased rates of infection and cancer. It is also thought to lead to an autoaggressive phenomenon in which normal cells are misidentified as alien and are attacked by the body's own immune system. This phenomenon is used to explain the increase of autoimmune disorders as we age
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Emerging Biological Theories
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Neuroendocrine Control or Pacemaker Theory
Caloric Restriction (Metabolic) Theory Genetic Research |
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Neuroendocrine Control or Pacemaker Theory
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The neuroendocrine system regulates many essential activities related to the organisms' growth and development. The neuroendocrine (or pacemaker) theory focuses on the changes in these systems over time. It may be that common neurons in the higher brain centers act as pacemakers that regulate the biological clock during development and aging and slow down and eventually “shut off” at the predetermined time. Much of the current research in this area is on the examination of hormones on neuroendocrine functioning over time, especially dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and melatonin.
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Caloric Restriction (Metabolic) Theory
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Some animal studies since the 1930s have found that reductions in caloric intake by 30% have multiple positive effects, such as increasing the life span, slowing metabolism, lowering body temperature, and delaying the onset of most age-related diseases. In particular, caloric restriction has been found to reduce the level of lipid peroxidation and subsequent damage from oxidation. Speculation is that lower body temperature slows body biochemical reactions and lowers levels of pentosidine, a substance found to strongly correlate with onset of age-related diseases.
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Genetic Research
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As the human genome is being mapped, scientists continue to examine the role that both genetics and RNA has in both random and programmed aging and may eventually be able to explain senescence. Among the findings include that of the existence of telomeres, which serve as a type of capping of the ends of the chromosomes. With each cellular reproduction, the telomere is shortened, until a time when the telomere disappears and the cell can no longer reproduce and dies. Abnormal cells such as cancer cells produce an enzyme called telomerase, which actually lengthens the telomeres, enabling the cells to continue to reproduce. Learning to manipulate telomerase may have significant implications for both controlling cellular reproduction and aging.
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Sociological Theories
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Role Theory
Activity Theory Disengagement Theory Continuity Theory Age-Stratification Theory Social Exchange Theory Modernization Theory |
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Role Theory
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As individuals evolve through the various stages in life, their roles evolve as well. This theory proposes that the ability of an individual to adapt to changing roles over the life course is a predictor of adjustment to personal aging.
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Activity Theory
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This theory sees activity as necessary to maintain life satisfaction and positive self-concept. The focus is on the individual's need to maintain a productive life for it to be a happy one. The productivity of middle life is thought to be best replaced with equally as engaging pursuits in late life.
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Disengagement Theory
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Disengagement theory proposed that the withdrawal of elders from their roles earlier in life was necessary to allow the transfer of power to the younger generations. The transfer of power allowed for the maintenance of social equilibrium and an expression of mutually agreed upon roles. Disengagement was viewed as an adaptive and healthy behavior. Although this theory has been discounted by gerontologists and elders themselves, it continues to spark discussion and comparison.
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Continuity Theory
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According to continuity theory, individuals tend to develop and maintain a consistent pattern of behavior, substituting one role for a similar one as one matures. Late life (including roles, responsibilities, and activities) is a reflection of a continuation of life patterns.
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Age-Stratification Theory
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Historical context is a key component of age-stratification theory. According to this theory, elders exist in cohorts or strata, or others who have shared similar historical periods in their lives, with age-graded systems of expectations and rewards. Age cohorts have been exposed to similar events, conditions, and global, environmental, and political circumstances. The definitions of the age-strata are usually social and cultural expressions of the definitions of aging as well as who and when one is placed in a stratum.
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Social Exchange Theory
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Social exchange theory is based on the consideration of the cost-benefit model of social participation. According to this theory, social interactions are based on exchanges. The resources of one are exchanged for those of the other of equal value. Roles and skills can be offered to another in exchange for needed resources. The value of the exchanges may determine the social status of the participants. Older adults are often viewed as unequal partners in the exchange and may need to depend on metaphorical reserves of contributions to the pool of reciprocity.
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Modernization Theory
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Modernization theory attempts to explain the social changes that have resulted in the devaluing of both the contributions of elders as well as the elders themselves. The status and therefore value of elders are lost when their labors are no longer considered useful, when kinship networks are dispersed, when the information they hold is not longer useful to the society in which they live, and when the culture in which they live no longer reveres them.
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Psychological Theories
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Jung
Erikson Peck Maslow |
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JUNG
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According to Jung (1971), a personality is either extroverted (oriented toward the external world) or introverted (oriented to the subjective inner world of the individual). With chronological age, the person is able to move from extraversion to introversion, from a focus on outward achievement to one of acceptance of the self and awareness that both the accomplishments and challenges to a lifetime can be found within oneself.
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ERIKSON
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Erikson (1993) theorized a predetermined order of psychological development and specific tasks that one needed to master in a step-wise fashion. The task of middle age is proposed as generativity. Failure to accomplish this stage results in stagnation. The task of late life is that of ego integrity as opposed to ego despair. Ego integrity, drawing from a Freudian perspective, implies a sense of completeness and cohesion of the self. It is also described as the achievement of late life wisdom.
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PECK
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Peck (1968) advanced the work of Erikson, describing tasks that could lead to ego integrity. All three of his tasks addressed the individual coming to terms with the aging process through transcending and differentiating the self from a preoccupation with ego, body, and roles.
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MASLOW
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Maslow's hierarchy ranked the needs of the person from the most basic (related to the maintenance of biological integrity) to the most complex (associated with self-actualization). Like Erikson, Maslow proposed that the higher levels can-not be met without first meeting the lower-level needs. In other words, moving toward healthy aging is an evolving and developing process. As more basic-level needs are met, the satisfaction of higher-level needs is possible, with ever-deepening richness to life, regardless of one's age.
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Which theory does this nursing education support?
Engage in exercise and muscle training |
wear-and-tear
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Which theory does this nursing education support?
Avoid skin dryness and joint stiffening |
cross-linkage
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Which theory does this nursing education support?
Avoid environmental pollutants and unnecessary radiation |
free radical
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Which theory does this nursing education support?
Watch for research related to effect of unsaturated fats and heavy metals on cell health |
cross-linkage
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Which theory does this nursing education support?
Watch for research on use and presence of antioxidants |
free radical
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What five things does the adult learning theory contain?
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Autonomous and self-directed
Foundation of life experiences and knowledge Goal-oriented Relevancy-oriented Practical |
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What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs starting with the bottom of the pyramid?
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Physiological needs
Safety needs Love and Belonging Esteem Self-actualization |
