Psychology Test Review

Front 1

1. What is psychology?

Back 1

The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and the factors that influence these processes

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Ancient Greeks

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Developed the idea that each person has 4 fluids/ humours called Blood, Phlegm, Melancholy, and Choler. The fluids caused different personalities

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Hippocrates (father of medicine)

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(460-377) BCE - Concluded that the brain was the source of pleasure, joy, laughter, as well as sorrow, grief, pain and tears. People formerly believed thinking took place in the heart

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6 branches of psychology.

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- Structuralism
- Functionalism
- Psychoanalysis
- Behaviourism
- Humanism
- Cognitive Psychology

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Perception

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The process by which we experience things through our senses. Allows us to select organize and interpret sensory signals in the brain.

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Sensation

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The process that activates our sense receptors (5 senses)

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Factors influencing perception

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1. Object of perception

2. Background and surounding

2. The perceiver

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1) The Object of Perception

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Large noisy, smelly and/or moving objects tend to attract our attention

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2) Background and Surrounding

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Surrounding at the moment of perception will affect how we perceive things.
(E.g. you will enjoy dinner more in a fancy restaurant with whose company you enjoy)

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3) The Perceiver

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Each of us brings a unique experience and a personal point of view to each situation.

Example: A bad experience learning math may affect the way you perceive your next learning experience

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Helen Keller study on sensation/perception

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- Helen Keller was blind and deaf.
- She relied on all of her sensory receptors that were physically available to her to perceive the world around her.
- So because she was blind and death and she lost those senses she compensated with the sense of smell, touch and taste.
- So her perception of a sunny day was really different from our perception because we’re going to take the lazy approach of using our line of sight and sound.
- So they combine because they are almost inseparable.
- To perceive something you need sensation and sensation gives us perception.
- Helen Keller used whatever senses were available to her to perceive the world around her.
- With this she was able to do what a lot of us could not without all of our senses (reading, writing, and speaking)

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Classical Conditioning

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Used to explain the attitudes, feelings, and basic physical responses. A pleasant or unpleasant reinforcement comes before the desired behaviour.

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Experiment conducted by Pavlov on classical conditioning.

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- Experiment was about a dog salivating in response to food. He would hit a bell before the food was set out then the dog would salivate immediately conditioning the dog to salivate each time the bell was rung.

- Discovered that conditioned stimulus can bring a conditioned response

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Operant Conditioning

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Provides an explanation for highly complex behaviours/ skills. The behaviour comes before the reinforcement.

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Experiment on operant conditioning

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B.F. Skinner put a rat in a cage rigged with a bar which when pushed, a pellet of food would come down. As the rat moved around the cage, the rat eventually pressed the bar and won a food pellet. The next time the rat pressed the bar, it received another food pellet. Soon the rat was pushing the bar constantly.

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4 processes crucial to observational learning

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- Attention

- Retention

- Reproduction

- Motivation

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Attention:

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To learn through observation, you pay attention to the behaviour of others

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Retention:

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You store a mental representation of what you observe in ypur lower memory

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Reproduction:

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You convert your stored memory into action. Practicing aids this process. You may have to return to attention or retention process in order to clarify your mental representation.

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Motivation:

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You must be motivated in order to practice a skill, and believe that the skill is useful and important in order for you to learn it. Motivation can be personal or from an outside source (intrinsic/extrinsic).

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Memory

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Is the next part of our model of the user as an information processing system. There are generally three types of memory: sensory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

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Sensory Memory (5 senses)

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- The sensory memories act as buffers for stimuli received through the senses.

- There are 3 sensory memories for each channel --> Iconic, Echoic, and Haptic memory.

- Information is passed from sensory memory into short-term memory by attention, thereby filtering the stimuli to only those which are of interest at a given time.

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Short-Term Memory (Names and phone numbers)

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- Acts as a scratch pad for temporary recall of the information under process.

- Short term memory decays rapidly (15-20 seconds).

- Chunking of information can lead to an increase in the short term memory capacity which can hold 7 items at a single time.

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Long-Term Memory (Store it for as long as you like)

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– Is intended for storage of information over a long time.

- Information from the working memory is transferred to it after a few seconds.

- Unlike in working memory, there is little decay. (These memories carry meanings  E.g. childhood memories)

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Deductive Reasoning

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- Reasoning to draw conclusions

- General to specific knowledge
- Knowledge truths based on other truths

EXAMPLE:

Truth 1: All human beings are mortal
Truth 2: I am a human being therefore I am

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Inductive Reasoning

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- Specific to general knowledge
- Observation to lead to a conclusion
- No guarantees

EXAMPLE:

Truth 1: I enjoyed the James Bond movie “Casino Royale”.
Truth 2: The new film James Bond “Quantum of Solace” looks good. Therefore I will enjoy all movies.

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Dialectical Reasoning:

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- Evaluating two opposing sides

EXAMPLE: Rogers VS. Bell, Coca-Cola VS. Pepsi, Chocolate VS. Vanilla

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Sleep Cycle: Stage 1 (Start of Sleep)

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– Can be awakened easily
- May feel like you haven’t slept
- Muscle contraction and twitches

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Sleep Cycle: Stage 2 (Light Sleep)

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- Heart rate slows
- Major organs rest
- Organs “flush out” waste
- Organs are refueling

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Sleep Cycle: Stage 3 (Deep Sleep)

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- Sleepwalk or sleeptalk can occur
- Use washroom but fall right back to sleep
- Feel the “sick symptoms”

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REM (Rapid eye movement)

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- Intense sleep
- Heart rate increases
- Body temperature decreases
- “Dreams” generally occur during this stage
- Body tries to heal and repair itself

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According to Freud, explain how the Id, Ego, and Superego interact

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--> These three aspects of the human mind often come into conflict with one another.
For example: Often the id will say one thing while the superego will say another thing. This leaves the ego to make the final decision

--> Devil and Angel on shoulder analogy
The id is the devil – it desires everything, both good and bad. And the superego is the angel – encouraging you to do the right thing

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Freud's 5 stages of personality development

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1) Oral

2) Anal

3) Phallic

4) Latency

5) Genital

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1. Oral Stage (dependency)

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- Takes place from birth to age 2, where the child explores the world using their mouth.

- If needs are not satisfied during this stage then one goes through life trying to meet them.

EXAMPLE: Baby putting phone, remote, toys, or toes in their mouth.

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2. Anal Stage

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- In this second stage, the child learns to control their bodily functions.

- If not handled properly/ the child is traumatized then they will become anal retentive, controlling, or rigid.

EXAMPLE: Either going to be really proud or shameful of using the toilet.

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3. Phallic Stage

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Between the ages of 3 to 5, the child becomes aware of male and female.

- Oedipus represents a child’s love for his mother and fear/jealousy towards his father.

- The Electra is the female version where the female child has anger towards her mother and exhibits “penis envy”.

EXAMPLE: Pushing away the parent of the same sex as a sign of competition.

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4. Latency Period

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In this stage, boys play with boys, and girls play with girls.
EXAMPLE: The idea boys and girls have germs or cooties

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5. Genital Stage

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Starting from age 12 to the peak of puberty, this stage is classified by the reawakening of sexual interest.

EXAMPLE: First interest in the opposite sex  E.g. first crush

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What is a defense mechanism?

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Defense mechanisms are psychoanalytical or Freudian construct. They were created to help explain individual responses to anxiety. They are unconscious and completely normal.

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Compensation

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A perceived deficit is compensated for by a skill or success in another area. FOR EXAMPLE: “I’m not good at math but I can do the Art section well”.

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Denial

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- A reality that causes anxiety is simply no perceived.

- The use of denial may lead to abrupt intrusion of reality into one’s life. FOR EXAMPLE: “I’m not mad at you” (You are rejecting a though or feeling)

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Displacement

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- Is the redirection of energy from a dangerous or forbidden object to a more socially acceptable one.

- The person redirects their feelings on to another object, act or target.

FOR EXAMPLE: “I hate that store” where in fact you may dislike a person who works at that store.

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Fantasy

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You imagine a scenario to replace a real one. FOR EXAMPLE: “My wife/ husband will look exactly like that model.”

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Repression

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- This anxiety is stored deeply in the unconscious where it is quiet for a time period.

- Repressed items however may manifest and surface in dreams or in slips of the tongue (Freudian slips).

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Freudian Slip

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- Is an error in speech, memory, or physical action that is believed to be caused by the unconscious mind.

- (E.g. Calling your teacher “mom” or “dad” / Raising your hand for permission in another setting outside of school – dinner table)

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Alfred Adler

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- First psychologist to examine how birth order affects personality  believed that the personality of a first-born child is not the same as that of a middle child

- He believed that there is a universal drive in all humans call striving for perfection.
- Felt that this fundamental urge to achieve our potential motivates all of our actions

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Carl Jung

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- Founded analytical psychology, a way to understand motivation based on the conscious/unconscious mind which forms the psyche
- Believed in 2 parts of the unconscious --> 1) Personal unconscious [Unique to each individual] and 2) Collective unconscious [Containing memories from our ancestors, shared by all humans, regardless of their culture]
- Discovered human behaviour is motivated by opposites
- Came up with Introvert + Extrovert (or “C” = situational)
- Said that society and people model behaviour to us

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Karen Horney

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- Founder of feminine psychology, she argued that women were pushed by society and culture to depend on men for both love and status
- She looked at the biological differences/composition between men/women

- Discovered that development is lifelong and not only fixated to childhood  Loved as a child = healthy adult

- Stated that women envy men’s social power and privilege in society. Also men are threatened by women’s ability to have kids. (Division b/w male/female rights)

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Maslow’s theory of motivation

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- When we are deprived of a need, it will arouse a feeling called drive.

- This drive will cause us to act (action) in a way that will satisfy our drive.

- Once the drive is satisfied, it will subside for a while.

- However as time elapses, the need will return and the motivation cycle will begin again.

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What 3 make components of emotions?

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- Cognitive

- Physical

- Behavioural

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(1) Cognitive Component:

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Is the mental state the conscious feeling or being happy, sad, angry, and excited

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(2) Physical Component:

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Is the physical characteristics that accompany emotional reactions

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(3) Behavioural Component;

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Expressing emotion through actions, withdrawal body language, or facial expressions.

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What 3 factors shape our emotional makeup

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- Heredity: Inherited emotional capacities

- Learning: Our learning experiences early in life. (Learning comes from culture)

- Maturity: As we age and mature, we develop a larger capacity for emotional reactions

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Harlow experiment

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• Harry Harlow believed that studying primates was an appropriate way to understand human behaviour. Came up with the Surrogate Mother Experiment

• The experiment was aimed at figuring out which urge is stronger: the need for affection or the satisfaction of physical need (specifically food)

• He put the monkeys in a cage and would open the door and the monkey would go to the wire mother briefly for milk but would spend the rest of the time clinging to the cloth mother for comfort

• The same was shown when the menacing machine was turned on, the baby monkey immediately turned towards the cloth monkey seeking comfort and protection

• When a monkey is put into a strange new environment (room with items), the monkey immediately seeks comfort and heads for the cloth mother

• Harlow’s experiment showed that infants depend on their caregivers for more than just their physical needs: meeting emotional needs is crucial for attachment.

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Types of Love: EROS

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(Romantic Love): This love is known to emphasize physical beauty as they search for the ideal mate. They believe in true love, love at first sight, and abiding passion. [EX. The Notebook]

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Type of Love: Ludus

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(Game Playing Love): Lovers enjoy the chase more than the catch; they like to keep their partner a little uncertain. [EX. How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days]

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Type of Love - Stroge

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(Companionate Love): Couples take longer to develop a relationship where they value friendship and trust. These relationships tend to last for a long time. [EX. Friends become lovers, seniors/grandparents]

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Type of Love: Mania

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(Possessive Love): These people are very emotional; they often suffer from jealously and worry. This is a consuming type of relationship. [EX. Matchpoint]

Front 60

What can cause stress in our lives?

Back 60

- Family
- Friends
- Work
- School
- Relationships
- Health
- Death/ Loss
- Divorce
- Traumatic event

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Stress

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(Opposite of relaxation) is a medical term for a wide range of strong external stimuli both physiological and psychological

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Eustress

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Is the result of positive events which is met with favourable physical and psychological reactions

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Distress

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Where the person is bombarded by negative events, and if the person finds no outlet to cope with their stress, it could lead them to shock, heart attack, stroke or death.

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Mental Illness

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- Refers to a range of mental health conditions that affect your mood, thinking and behaviour.

- A mental health concern becomes a mental health illness when ongoing signs and symptoms cause frequent stress and affect your ability to cope with the challenges of everyday life.

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Practices used in the past to treat the mentally ill

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Early treatments – Trepanation --> hole drilled into top of head to release evil spirits causing the “madness”

Middle Ages – Barbaric burnings and the Salem Witch hunt in Massachusetts

Islamic Treatment – Created asylums offering patients special items in attempt to rehabilitate them

18th & 19th Century – Tranquilizing Chair --> Used to restrain patients for hours during bouts of madness
- Whirling Chair --> Used to sedate patients (they were spun until loss of consciousness and it was thought to have rearranged the contents of the mind)
- Confinement Box/Crib --> Retraining device that was used to restrain the mentally ill

1900’s – Sigmund Freud --> Merged medical and analytical approaches to solve personal mental problems

1930’S / 1940’s –Induced seizures, cramp theories, lobotomy, and antipsychotic drugs were used during this period

1950’s / 1960’s – Psychotherapy which helped patients understand why they are acting/thinking in troubling or dangerous ways. First pharmaceutical treatments were available.

Front 66

Compare and contrast the treatment of the mentally ill according to Ancient Islamic practices and the treatment of those in Bedlam. What went wrong?

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- The Islamic world created asylums which gave patients speech diets, baths, medication, music and pleasant surroundings in attempt to rehabilitate them.

- Bedlam was known as the “Madhouse” for its inhumane treatment. It was one of the most infamous asylums, selling tickets so the public could come and watch the spectacle of its patients. Mental illness was seen as a form of entertainment for some people in society (rich/upper-class)

- Comparisons: Both institutionalized and categorized the mentally ill. Also both were asylums.

- Contrasts: Islamic treatment was humane and was focused on healing/rehabilitating to individual.

- The Bedlam asylum’s treatment was focused around inhuman techniques to appease and entertain guests who paid to walk through the doors.

- The Islamists cared about patient well-being and Bedlam did not.