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154 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the largest organ in the body?
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the skin
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What are the two layers of the skin?
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The epidermis and the dermis
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What type of cells comprise the epidermis?
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epithelial cells
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What is the muscle that moves a hair follicle?
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the arrector pili
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What gives the appearance of skin color?
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melanin
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What are the four derivatives of the epidermis?
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Hair, scales, feathers, nails/claws/hoof
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Are scales and feathers homologous or analogous?
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homologous
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Are hairs and feathers homologous or analogous?
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analogous
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What are the three different types of skeletal systems?
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1. hydrostatic skeleton
2. exoskeleton 3. endoskeleton |
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How does a hydrostatic skeleton work?
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The water volume in an organism cannot be compressed so the contraction of muscles causes the volume to extend.
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Are anterior appendages of vertebrates usually homologous or analogous?
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Homologous
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What are the 4 different kinds of joints and examples of each?
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1. immovable/suture joint - skull
2. ball and socket - shoulder, hip 3. hinge joint- knee, elbow 4.partially moveable/symphysis - ribs to sternum. |
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What are the two main skeleton regions?
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Axial and appendicular skeleton
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What do large flat bones generally indicate?
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A large surface area for muscle attachment.
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What system did muscles coevolve with?
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The skeletal system
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What determines muscle type?
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The shape of bones
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What is the only way that muscles can do work?
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by contraction
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What is the origin?
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The attachment point of a muscle that is relatively immovable.
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What is the insertion?
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The attachment point of a muscle that is movable.
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Review muscle contraction diagrams!
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Review Muscle contraction diagrams!
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What is a muscle twitch?
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An individual muscle cell contracting.
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What is the thin protein filament in a muscle?
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Actin
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What is the thick protein filament in a muscle?
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myosin
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What does troponin do?
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Bonds to calcium ions released by muscle cell membrane, then changing shape of tropomyosin allowing actin and myosin to bond.
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What does tropomyosin do?
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Long fibrous proteins that block the binding sites on actin until activated by troponin, revealing the bonding sites.
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What breaks the bonds between actin and myosin?
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ATP
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What determines the calcium control in muscle contraction?
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nerve impulses
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What causes Rigor Mortis?
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The depletion of ATP upon death means that the bonds between actin and myosin (the rigor complexes) are not broken.
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What does an antagonistic muscle pair do?
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One muscle's contraction is opposite to another.
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What is one of the primary homeostatic functions of the excretory system?
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maintains water balance
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What are osmoconformers?
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Porifera, platyhelminthes - water concentration is isotonic with the sea.
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What are osmoregulators?
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Organisms that have a mechanism for maintaining water balance.
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What is the water concentration in the environment of a fresh water fish relative to the fish? salt water?
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Hypotonic (more), hypertonic (less)
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What are protonephridia?
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Primitive excretory tubule flame cells in platyhelminthes
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What are malpighian tubules?
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A kidney-like structure in insects
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What is the primary purpose of the kidney?
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Filters dissolved materials from blood.
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What are the three areas of the kidney?
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1. renal pelvis - most inner
2. kidney medulla - inner 3. kidney cortex - outer |
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What is the glomerulus?
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The capillary bundle that is surrounded by Bowman's capsule, where materials and solubles are forced out of the blood into the kidney.
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What is Bowman's capsule?
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Wall of squamous epithelium that surrounds the glomerulus, applies pressure causing materials and solutes to exit capillaries.
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What is the proximal convoluted tubule?
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The tubule closer to Bowman's capsule, forms the kidney cortex.
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What is the loop of Henle?
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Establishes and maintains increasing salt concentration gradient in medulla of kidney.
1. Descending - permeable, lets water out 2. Ascending - not permeable, lets salt out 3. forms kidney medulla |
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What is the distal convoluted tubule?
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Tubule further from Bowman's capsule.
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What is the collective tubule?
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Tubule that maintains water balance. Variable permeability
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What functions does the hypothalamus regulate?
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Physiological - not conscious, automatic
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What part of the brain controls the posterior pituitary gland?
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the hypothalamus
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What is vasopressin?
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(antidiuretic hormone) - released by pituitary gland, causes collective tubule to be more permeable releasing more water into tissue allowing blood vessels to absorb it.
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Review kidney control.
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Review kidney control.
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What are the two primary types of hormones released by the endocrine system?
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Protein and steroid hormones
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What kind of signalling is paracrine?
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Local signaling, inflammation, growth. Secreting cell secretes hormones to target cells.
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What kind of activities involve neural synaptic signaling?
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Muscle contraction
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What is something that is highly conserved?
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A process or molecule that is found in distantly related organisms. (hormones found in all phyla)
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Review Insect hormone control.
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review insect hormone control.
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review glucose hormone control.
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review.
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What is excess glucose stored in the liver as?
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Glucagon
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Which hormones are lipid soluble? Which are not?
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Steroids, protein
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What does thyrotrophic releasing hormone (TRH) do?
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Causes anterior pituitary to release TSH
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What does thyrotrophic stimulating hormone (TSH) do?
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Causes thyroid to release thyroxin.
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What does thyroxin do?
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Stimulates metabolism of body cells and stimulates a decrease in the activity of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.
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Review Protein and Steroid hormones activities.
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Review.
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What does the thymus produce?
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Thymosin
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What is irritability?
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The ability of a cell to adjust internally by external forces.
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What is reception?
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The ability to be able to detect signals.
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What is conduction?
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The electrochemical changes in the membrane of a nerve cell that carry signals from receptor cells to the CNS
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What are effectors?
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Tissues that carry out response to a signal. (muscles, glands, etc.)
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What are motor neurons?
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Enlarged nerve cells that control movement.
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Does white matter or gray matter have myolin?
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White matter.
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What is a dendrite?
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Nerve cell extension that carries nerve signal to body.
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What is an axon?
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Nerve cell extension that carries nerve signal away from cell body.
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What are Schwann cells?
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Cells that produce myelin and wrap themselves around axon creating a protective sheet.
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What are the nodes of Ranvier?
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The spaces between Schwann cells that reamplify the nervous signal.
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What was the first phylum to have a nervous system?
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Cnidaria
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What are afferent nerves?
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Nerves that carry signal to the CNS.
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What are efferent nerves?
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Nerves that carry signal away from CNS to effectors.
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What is the synapse?
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The location where neurotransmission occurs.
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What are the two divisions of the nervous system?
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1. CNS
2. peripheral nerves |
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What is a reflex arc?
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Simple, automatic reaction.
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Review Nerve Signal.
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Review Nerve Signal.
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Where does the white matter of the spinal cord send signals?
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To the brain.
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Where does the gray matter send signals?
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To the effectors via the motor neurons.
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What are the three membranes of the spinal cord?
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1 Pia mater - innermost
2. arachnoid 3. dura mater - outermost |
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What is a nerve impulse?
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A change in the polarity across a nerve membrane.
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Review brain organization.
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Review brain organization.
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What are the two primary regions of the forebrain? What sensory function is commonly associated with the forebrain?
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Diencephalon, telencephalon. Smell
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What are the two areas of the diencephalon and their functions?
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1. Thalamus - Area of sensory integration
2. Hypothalamus- Area associated with somatic regulatory functions (body homeostasis) |
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What are the 3 main regions of a vertebrate brain?
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Forebrain - smell
Midbrain - vision Hindbrain |
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What are the two primary regions of the hindbrain and their functions?
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1. medulla - origin of parasympathetic neurons
2. cerebellum - motor coordination. |
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How is the intensity of a stimulus measured?
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The stronger the input the larger the number of impulses.
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What is sensory accommodation?
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When a sensory organ continuously receives a signal, the threshhold for the stimulus increases.
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What is a receptive field?
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Area of nerve endings that correspond to a feeling. (we don't feel our feet with our fingers)
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What are the three types of receptors we have?
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1. chemoreceptors
2. mechanoreceptors 3. photoreceptors |
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What senses use chemoreceptors?
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Taste and smell
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What senses use mechanoreceptors?
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touch and hearing
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What senses use photoreceptors?
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sight
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What are proprioceptors?
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Receptors that help recognize spatial orientation.
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Review Pacinian corpuscle.
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review.
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What are hair cells?
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Cells found in ear that help determine both balance and their vibration determines pitch and volume.
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What are otoliths?
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Small pieces of bone that float in the semicircular canals and move with gravity bumping up against hair cells to help determine orientation.
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What is the pinna?
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The outer part of the ear.
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What is the purpose of the choroid?
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To diminish the reflection of light.
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What is the sclera?
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The outer white portion of the eye.
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What is the cornea?
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anterior portion of the sclera that is curved and transparent, bends light rays into lens.
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What is the purpose of the lens?
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Fine focusing an image.
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What is the purpose of the vitreous humor?
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Keeps the retina in place.
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What is the blind spot?
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Area where there are no light receptive cells.
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What holds the lens in place?
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Suspensory ligaments.
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Review lens control
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review lens control.
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What are the two types of light sensitive cells found in the eye?
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1. rods
2. cones |
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What are the 4 characteristics of rods?
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1. detect a photon of light by rhodopsin
2. very sensitive to any amt. of light 3. distributed primarily around periphera of eye 4. only black and white |
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What are the 3 primary characteristics of cones?
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1. Less sensitive to light, require high intensity
2. sharp well-defined image 3. color |
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Review vision pathway.
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Review Vision pathway.
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What is ontogeny?
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The study of the origin and development of an organism.
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What is phylogeny?
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Studying how an organism evolved.
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What is proximate causation?
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The study of the mechanisms that cause a behavior (nervous, biochemical etc.)
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What is ultimate causation?
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The adaptive significance of a behavior.
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What is adaptive significance?
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In what way does the behavior contribute to the relative fitness of the individual.
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What is relative fitness?
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How well an organism is fitted to survive and reproduce in its environment.
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What are the three approaches to studying animal behavior?
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1. neurophysiological approach
2. comparative school of psychology 3. ethology |
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What is the neurophysiological approach to animal behavior?
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Studies proximate causation by destroying neurons or nerve cells and seeing the effect.
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Who founded the comparative school of psychology?
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B.F. Skinner
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What does the comparative school of psychology involve? What is wrong with this process?
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It attempts to simplify the environment of an animal thereby isolating their behaviors. This artificial environment can create artificial behaviors.
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What is ethology?
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The study of instinctual behavior.
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Who are 3 important figures in ethology?
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Tinbergen, Lorentz, von Frish
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What are two important simple behaviors?
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Taxis, Warning calls
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What are the three kinds of taxis?
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1. phototaxis - movement in relation to light
2. chemotaxis - movement in relation to chemical signals 3. thermotaxis - movement in relation to thermal signals |
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What are four important large-scale behaviors?
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1. food-finding
2. orientation 3. courtship and mating 4. territoriality |
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What is the ultimate causation of food finding?
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The orientation of animals, since they are heterotrophic, to provide themselves with food is vital to their existence.
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What are the two types of orientation?
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1. Proprioception - body in space
2. Knowing migratory patterns |
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What are the four examples of ultimate causation involving courtship and mating?
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1. Decreases aggression
2. synchronizes release of gametes 3. intiates physiological events associated with gamete release 4. identifies sex, species |
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What are two important points about Parental care?
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1. it is not found in most animals
2. the number of offspring produced is small |
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What is territoriality?
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A specific area of an environment that an animal will defend.
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What is a home range?
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The area of daily movement of an animal, not necessarily the area they will defend.
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What are displacement activities?
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When an organism comes into contact with another organism of the same species in their territory they will simply cause them to leave, not actually harm them.
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What are 3 important factors in a dominance hierarchy?
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1. size
2. health 3. experience |
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What are two learned behaviors?
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1. habituation
2. ability to reason |
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What is habituation?
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Learning to ignore things in the environment.
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What is ecology?
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The study of the relationships of organisms and their environment.
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What is a population?
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A group of individuals of the same species living in an area
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What is a community?
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A group of different species occupying the same area.
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What is an ecosystem?
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a system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their environment
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What are two important characteristics of populations?
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1. A species will be adapted to its environment genetically or physiologically
2. Variations in environment will cause different mechanisms of response. |
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What is a niche?
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The functional role (profession) an animal has in its environment.
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What is a habitat?
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The conditions of an animals physical surroundings.
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What is a fundamental niche?
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The conditions under which an animal can survive if not competing for resources.
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What is a realized niche?
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The actual conditions that an animal is surviving in.
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IN NO CASE CAN TWO SPECIES COMPETE EQUALLY SUCCESSFULLY.
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NO TWO SPECIES WILL HAVE EXACTLY THE SAME NICHE.
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What six factors is a population dependent on?
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1. birth rate
2. death rate 3. average lifespan 4. patterns of migration 5. age distribution 6. dispersal |
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What are the two growth patterns that characterize populations?
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1. exponential
2. logistic |
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What are the three density dependent factors that are limiting to a population?
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1. availability of food/water
2. predator/prey relationship 3. disease transmission |
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What are the three density independent factors that are limiting to a population?
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1. natural disasters
2. seasonal changes 3. climate |
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What is the relationship of predator prey populations?
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The number of predators is always much smaller than the prey.
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What is interspecific competition?
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Competition between two species.
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What is intraspecific competiton?
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Competition within a species (natural selection).
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What is Gause's law of competitive exclusion?
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When 2 species are competing for a limiting resource one will win out.
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Study pop. growth patterns.
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study.
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