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111 Cards in this Set
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HAMMURABI
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King of Babylonia from 1792-1750 BCE; known as the most famous law-giver in Mesopotamia. His law code, the first to ever be written, was based on the ideal of justice and sought to match the crime and punishment as literally as possible. The code focuses on protecting the community as a whole but makes major class distinctions within this community for the good of the community. This established the concept of the written, systematic law code, followed by civilizations after.
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ABRAHAM
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Lived ca. 1900 BCE. Was originally from Ur of the Chaldeans (in Mesopotamia). Abraham formed the original covenant with God, despite difficulties including the lack of an heir, the threat of bondage in Egypt, and the lack of fear of God. This covenant then established the Israelites as the people of God. Abraham’s faith made him the prototype to all believers.
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SAMUEL
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Prophet of Israel during rule of Saul. Judge of Israel. Lived in Land of Zuph. Anointed Saul and David; dual anointment caused problems at the time and later between anointed kings of different countries. Samuel serves as an example of fulfilled commitments to God.
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MESOPOTAMIA
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Name for the area of the Tigris-Euphrates river system, currently in modern-day Iraq. Regarded as the birthplace of civilization, Mesopotamia was the first civilization to legally and socially define an individual within the context of the community. First cities, first codified law. Calendar and cuneiform writing.
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MOSES
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Instructed by God to lead the Hebrews out of Egypt to the promised land, recorded the 10 Commandments mid-13th century BCE; 10 Commandments formalized the contractual agreement, or covenant, between the Israelites and God. 10 Commandments was precursor of the form of many later law codes. This differed drastically from other religious covenants in that God became the exclusive deity of the Israelites.
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SAUL
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First king of Israel. Tribe of Benjamin, from Gibeah. Ruled 10??-1010 BCE. He was anointed by Samuel. Even after he started to displease God, he was still anointed, even David, who was also anointed, would not touch him. This provided basis for idea that as kings were anointed, they could not be touched. This was used as an argument in Investiture Controversy.
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PHAROAH
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Rulers of Egypt c. 3050-1000BC. They were considered to be gods on earth. Many later cultures such as Rome included this in their political structures.
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COVENANT
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A formal alliance or agreement made by God with a religious community or with humanity in general. The first covenant was established between Abraham and God ca. 1900 BCE and was then formalized by Moses and the Israelites in the mid-13th century BCE.
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DAVID
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Second king of Israel 1010-970 BC. Also anointed by Samuel and was king at the same time as Saul. This dichotomy would be the basis for disputes over kingship in the medieval ages.
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POLIS
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The political unit of ancient Greece between 800-100 BCE and remained so until the beginning of Roman control six centuries later. Literally means citadel or high place, polises were the first democracies, discussed in Aristotle's Politics. It was an independent community of citizen not ruled by a king and emphasized equal protection of laws for rich and poor alike. It differs from a city in that all citizens are completely committed to the others.
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THERMOPYLAE
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480 BCE. A narrow mountain pass in central Greece where the Greeks attempted to stop the Persian invasion. The Spartan infantry, who led the attack, were all killed. Gave the Greeks more time to prepare, and they eventually defeated the Persians in a massive naval battle.
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THUCYDIDES
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c. 455-399 BCE. Wrote contemporary history (including History of the Peloponnesian War) in which he analyzed power politics as a prelude to political science. As a politician and failed military commander, he used his experience to describe human moral failings, insisting on reliability and objectivity. He was exiled because he showed the shameful moments in Greek history as well as the glorious moments.
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PERICLES
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Leading statesman in Athens ca. 467-429 BCE, during the Golden Age. He turned the Delian League into the Athenian empire which extended Athenian influence further into the Mediterranean. He spearheaded reforms to increase equality for the lower classes, to democratize the judicial system, and to pay people holding public office.
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SOLON
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An Athenian statesman and war hero. Appointed emergency official in 594 BCE after Draco. Ended exclusive aristocratic control of the government and instituted an oligarchy. Created council of 400. Cancelled private debts, didn't redistribute land, and banned citizens from being sold into slavery to pay debts. He was also a noted poet.
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ACROPOLIS
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A prominent rocky hill that many Greek city-states sprung up around. Pericles built the Parthenon on top of the Acropolis in the center of Athens. It was the location where everyone in the city went to meet and was placed on top of the hill because it would be easy to spot. Usually housed sanctuaries for the city's protective deities and could serve as a fortress during enemy attack.
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SOCRATES
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Greek philosopher. Everything that is known about him is known through the writings of his student, Plato. Extremely loyal to Athens, although Athens sentenced him to death for leading the youth astray. Had many opportunities to escape but did not because he was so loyal to the polis and the rules that formed him from birth (Crito). Taught Plato, who was the teacher of Aristotle, big influence on western heritage and culture. He used questions to challenge people's beliefs and encouraged them to develop excellence instead of pursuing wealth and public success.
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CRITO
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Dialogue between Socrates and his friend Crito, who is trying to convince Socrates to escape and avoid execution. Socrates outlines his reasons for why he cannot let himself escape, because throughout his whole life he was governed by the laws of Athens and these laws shaped his being; to go against them now would be going against what he had agreed to uphold his whole life. Demonstrates putting state before the individual, individual is subject to will of state.
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PLATO
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Student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle ca. 427-347 BCE. He was angry with democracy because his mentor Socrates was condemned to death by the polis of Athens. He believed reality existed in a separate world of forms of which temporal, physical things were only shadows. Plato laid important foundations for the rest of Western philosophical thought, such as the concept of the state before the individual and the immortality of the soul.
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ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE
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Found in Plato's "Republic": People (symbolizing mankind) are chained in a cave facing a wall- they can only see the shadows of images that other people are holding up in front of a fire. These shadows are the objects that we see on earth. Outside of the cave (i.e. either the afterlife or some other spiritual location beyond us) there is sunlight and the true forms of objects.
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ARISTOTLE
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Greek philosopher (394-322 BCE) and a student of Plato famous for his scientific investigations, development of logical argument and practical ethics. Argued that some were slaves by nature because their souls lacked the rationality to be fully human. Aristotle contributed to almost every field of human knowledge at that time and founded many new fields. Believed understanding was based on observation and reason, unlike Plato, so he examined examples instead of just theory. His views influenced medieval scholarship and Renaissance views and continue to influence Christian theology and how we view ethics.
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NATURAL SLAVE
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Someone who naturally will always be in subjection. Not necessarily legally, but mentally. They are incapable of thinking for themselves. Aristotle described this state in Politics.
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ALEXANDER THE GREAT
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356-323 BCE. King of Macedonia who conquered most of the known world, from Egypt to Turkey to Uzbekistan, then as far east as India. His conquest of the Persian Empire led to the greatly increased cultural interactions of Greece and the Near East in the Hellenistic Age, and led to the spread of Hellenism.
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JUDAS MACCABEUS
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Led a revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes in 167 BCE. Won Jewish independence from Seleucid control after 25 years of war. Made agreement with Rome to accomplish this.
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SOPHISM
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The sophists were professional teachers who came into being in Greece’s golden age. (mid 5th century BCE). For pay they would teach non-traditional philosophy and religion, but focused more on rhetoric. They did not believe in absolutes but that truth was relative to each person. Rhetoric was persuasive, not necessarily truthful. Sophists believe that life’s purpose is to obtain what you want from others through means of persuasion.
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HELLENIZATION
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Historical spread of ancient Greek culture and language over peoples conquered by Greece following the campaign of Alexander the Great.
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ANTIOCHUS IV EPIPHANES
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r. 175-164 BCE. Was of the Seleucid family. Supported Hellenization of Israel. He eventually transformed temple of Jerusalem into a Greek temple. Erected a statue of himself there. Outlawed Jewish religious rites. Caused Maccabean revolt.
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CYNICISM
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School of ancient Greek philosophy developed in the Hellenistic world (c. 323-30 BC). The word cynic comes from the Latin word for dog, since dogs are also ruled by their impulses. Cynicism began with Antisthenes around the 3rd century BCE and was made known by Diogenes. Cynics hold that what the individual want should be the only deciding factor in decisions and that no entity has any legitimate claim on you. This way of thinking directly contradicts the Great Tradition.
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GAUGAMELA
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The Battle of Gaugamela at Gaugamela (in modern day Iraq) took place in 331 BC between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. This battle was a decisive victory for the Macedonians and led to the fall of the Persian Empire. This allowed Alexander to conquer and spread Hellenization.
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PTOLEMY
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Successor of Alexander the Great c. 367-282 BC. Ruled most of Egypt and part of palestine. He fought often with the Seleucids. Used system of central planning in his territories. Example of one way rulers sought to control their territories.
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STOICISM
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The Hellenistic philosophy whose followers believed in fate but also in pursuing excellence (virtue) by cultivating good sense, justice, courage, and temperance. Stoics believe that reason should trump emotion, and displays of emotion illustrate that you do not understand the trials and pains that are an inevitable part of life.
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TIBERIUS GRACCHUS
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Tiberius Gracchus (163-132 BCE) was a plebeian tribune who sought to transfer wealth from the wealthy to the poor and to reduce the widespread political corruption in Rome. This caused political turmoil throughout the Republic, and led to his assassination.
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HANNIBAL BARCA
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Carthaginian general during 2nd Punic War (218-201 BC) marched troops and elephants over Alps into Italy. Slaughtered Romans at Cannae and tried to convince her allies to desert her. In 215 BC he allied with Macedonian king, forcing Rome to fight on multiple fronts. After war, this meant that Rome’s army was East of Italy for the first time.
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LEGION
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Basic unit of the ancient Roman army, composed of about 5400 soldiers. Citizens only. The legion is a key reason to the power of the Roman army. It was much more flexible than previous units.
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GAIUS MARIUS
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(157-86 BCE). A general in the 1st century BC, Gaius Marius was a Roman politician who recruited an army from the lowest section of society. The idea behind this was that the plunder that the army won would make the poor soldiers rich and therefore loyal to GM, not to Rome. Marius (because he had a well-trained army and was a good general) defeated Jugurtha (a competitor) and came back to claim control of the Senate. Struggled for power with Sulla; lots of civil wars. They both kept going to fight Mithridates Eupator, which is two fun words amounting to a double-fun name. Lots more civil wars. Eventually Marius died and Sulla got control.
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JULIUS CAESAR
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100 BC-44 BC. Started out as a general with an army loyal to him that he took campaigning. He united with Pompey and Crassus to form a “triumvirate” really just dominated by Pompey and Caesar; Crassus conveniently died shortly afterward in a campaign against the Parthians. Then both Pompey and Caesar wanted to go fight, because their armies were becoming restless and undisciplined; they didn’t trust each other, though, so they agreed to go at the same time and come racing back. Pompey was fighting Mithridates Eupator while Caesar was fighting the Gauls (I think.) They did this a few times. Finally, Pompey faked it and let Caesar go galumphing off to fight the Gauls. Then he took over the Senate. However Caesar came back and smashed him and seized all control. Then he was murdered. The end.
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CITIZENSHIP
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The was a privileged political and legal status afforded to freeborn individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance in the Roman Empire. Benefits included little or no taxes, exemption from some laws (like physical punishment), and ability to demand a trial. Citizenship helped unite the empire and give it the cohesion needed to grow so powerful. Crucially, anyone under Roman control could (in theory) become a citizen with enough work, and citizenship was passed down from generation to generation. The Roman concept of citizenship also provided inspiration for the American Founding Fathers.
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MITHRIDATES IV EUPATOR
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120-63 BCE. He was crushing armies around the eastern border of the Roman empire near Turkey. At the time, both Sulla and Gaius Marius wanted control of Rome, so neither of them wanted to leave the other one in charge. Sulla defeated him eventually while Marius tried to wipe out his supporters in Rome, which led to civil war.
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POMPEY
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A competitor to Julius Caesar (105-48 BCE). He raised an army loyal only to him and went on campaigns. He united with Caesar and Crassus to form a “triumvirate” really just dominated by Pompey and Caesar; Crassus conveniently died shortly afterward in a campaign against the Parthians. Then both Pompey and Caesar wanted to go fight, because their armies were becoming restless and undisciplined; they didn’t trust each other, though, so they agreed to go at the same time and come racing back. Pompey was fighting Mithridates Eupator while Caesar was fighting the Gauls (I think.) They did this a few times. Finally, Pompey faked it and let Caesar go galumphing off to fight the Gauls. Then he took over the Senate. However Caesar came back and smashed him and seized all control. Then he was murdered. The end.
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PATRONAGE
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A system which involved one, more powerful “patron” sponsoring a less wealthy or less powerful “client” in a long-term relationship (e.g. a certain citizen would always use the same shipping company.) The system interconnected Romans and was a means of holding the empire together because it gave everyone common interests while uniting them all to Rome.
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AUGUSTUS
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(63 BC-14 AD) After Caesar was murdered, Marc Antony and Octavian (later Augustus, who was the adopted son of Caesar) chased down and killed his assassins. They created a “triumvirate” with Lepidus, who was killed campaigning (are you seeing a pattern here?) Marc Antony was distracted by Cleopatra and Octavian was very politically astute, so Octavian eventually crushed Marc Antony (Cleopatra killed herself) and took over Rome. Then he wrote Res Gestae. He was the first Roman emperor.
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RES GESTAE
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Written by Augustus as a type of “resumé” in which he enumerated his accomplishments and more firmly established his throne. He laid out his greatness and implicitly threatened his enemies.
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NICENE CREED
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The document created by the Council of Nicaea (A council of bishops in 325 A.D.) which was called by Constantine. It established the foundational beliefs of the early Church and thus allowed for the first written summary of one of the major religions in the Western world. The major reason for its creation was to respond to the heresy of Arianism and establish that God and Jesus are homoousian (“of one substance”).
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BRUTUS
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A friend of Caesar who was one of the main conspirators in his assassination.
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DEIFICATION OF THE EMPEROR
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A means that Augustus and subsequent emperors used to unify the Roman empire. Everyone in the empire was required to worship the empire in addition to their household/devotional gods. This gave everyone a common experience centering around the emperor and brought the empire together. It was also compatible with the existing culture of a region (an example of how the Romans added their own identity to an existing cultural identity.)
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AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
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354-430. Bishop in North Africa whose writings defining religious orthodoxy made him the most influential theologian in Western civilization.
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MARC ANTONY
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83-30 BCE. After Caesar was murdered, Marc Antony and Octavian (later Augustus, who was the adopted son of Caesar) chased down and killed his assassins. They created a “triumvirate” with Lepidus, who was killed campaigning. Then Marc Antony became involved with Cleopatra, the last descendant of Alexander’s generals, in Egypt. He started giving pieces of the Empire to Cleopatra’s children, which gave Octavian a chance to go after him. Octavian eventually crushed Marc Antony (Cleopatra killed herself) and took over Rome.
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PLINY THE YOUNGER
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62-113 AD. Pliny was the governor of Bithynia from 110-113. He wrote a letter to Trajan, emperor of Rome, in which he described the Christians’ disruption of community. He saw Christianity as a political threat to Rome, and believed that Christians should be punished for their “contumacy and inflexible obstinacy.”
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CITY OF GOD
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A book by St. Augustine (354-430.) Among other things, City of God outlined principles of governing; Augustine held that the same principles should apply to the individual, the community, and the nation. Continuing with this Trinitarian theme, he described each of these as having physical, intellectual, and spiritual aspects. The three aspects of man’s life, according to Augustine, were knowledge and action, obedience and rule, and avoiding evil and doing good. He believed that there were times when a man was meant to rule and times when he was meant to obey.
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CONSTANTINOPLE
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“Constantine’s City”. It had a blend of Christianity and traditional gods (the city was decorated with statues.) It became the eastern capital of Roman Empire in 395, chosen as Constantine’s capital and called “new Rome.” It was the most important city in the Roman Empire. Previously, when it was a Greek city, it was called Byzantium.
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VISIGOTHS
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The barbarians who were united by Gothic chief Alaric after Theodosius died in 395. They fought into Western Empire and in 410 sacked Rome. In 418, W emperor Honorius reluctantly let them settle in SW Gaul, and they formed a political identity based on Roman tradition. These concessions encouraged other barbarians to move in too.
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JUSTINIAN I
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(r.527-565) (wife, Theodora 500-548) Justinian was the most famous eastern Roman emperor. He tried to restore the glory of Augustus’ Roman Empire, and built the Hagia Sophia. He increased imperial power and waged war against the barbarians. He tried to unite the empire and wrote a law code (the Codex, 529) and a legal textbook for students (the Institutes, 533.)
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SAXONS
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From NW Germany. They joined with the Angles from Denmark and moved to England to form Anglo-Saxons. In the 770s-80s, Charlemagne fought against them, annexed them, and converted them to Christianity.
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BATTLE OF ADRIANOPLE
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Also known as Hadrianopolis, Adrianople was the site of a battle in 378. It was between the Eastern Roman Empire (led by Valens) and the Goths (led by Fritigern). It was a decisive Gothic victory, and marked the beginning of the end of the Western Roman Empire. It demonstrated a common pattern of barbarians seeking protection in the empire and being fought back. Valens abused the Goths, so they retaliated.
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KNIGHT
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(Early Middle ages) Barbarians invaded big cities, so people moved out to the country. Then they needed guards and fighters, so they hired knights to protect them as their vassals. Knights fought on horseback with armor (military revolution.) They were a replacement for the Roman army.
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MONASTERY
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A place of communal monasticism, monks sought to preserve the learning of antiquity and the Christian faith here. In doing so they nurtured a transformed culture that would endure until the sixteenth century. The monks dominated intellectual culture through the entire early middle ages. Monasteries were part of Christian asceticism and had rules like the Benedictine Rule to govern the monks’ daily lives.
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EINHARD
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775-840. Scholar and courtier who was a servant of Charlemagne and wrote a biography of him, Life of Charlemagne.
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MOHAMMED
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The prophet of Islam (c. 570-632). He united a community of believers around his religious tenets, above all that there was one God whose words have been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel. Later, written down, these revelations became the Qur’an.
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BENEDICTINE RULE
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Created by Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-553), this rule mandated the monastery’s daily routine of prayer, Scriptural readings, and manual labor. It divided the day into seven parts called offices. The Rule gave the abbot full authority and showed that leadership was about responsibility. The Benedictine Rule formalized Western cenobitic monasticism.
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ANOINTING
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The Emperor was considered “anointed of the Lord” and was one of Henry’s arguments against Pope Gregory in the Investiture Controversy. The notion of anointing the ruler hearkens back to the anointing of Saul and David.
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LORD
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A landholder who has vassals bound by oaths to serve him. Demonstrated the structure of authority in the Medieval world.
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CHARLEMAGNE
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The Carolingian king (r. 768-814) whose conquests greatly expanded the Frankish kingdom while promoting the arts and education, and his court became the cultural center of the Carolingian Renaissance. He was crowned emperor on December 25, 800.
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BATTLE OF HASTINGS
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The battle of 1066 that replaced the Anglo-Saxon king (King Harold II) with a Norman one (William the Conqueror) and thus tied England to the rest of Europe as never before.
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BATTLE OF POITIERS
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Battle between the Franks (under Charles Martel) and the Muslims in October of 732, in France. The battle was later characterized as a decisive turning point in the struggle against Islam. It halted the spread of Islam into Europe and preserved Christianity as the major religion in the area.
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INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY
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The confrontation between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV that began in 1075 over the appointment of prelates in some Italian cities and grew into a dispute over the nature of church leadership. It ended in 1122 with the Concordat of Worms. The Investiture Controversy was disastrous for the future of the Empire because it brought civil war to Germany and resulted in the permanent strengthening of local rulers at the expense of the monarchy. It also raised serious questions about the relationship of the Church and State in a Christian world.
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SALADIN
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1137-1193. Sunni Muslim leader of Turks, took Syria and Egypt, conquered Jerusalem in 1187. He basically caused the 3rd Crusade, which instigated the money economy.
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MAGNA CARTA
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Literally “Great Charter”; the charter of baronial liberties that King John was forced to agree to in 1215. It implied that royal power was subject to custom and law, and was also a foundation for modern law.
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KING JOHN
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1167-1216. He mostly failed to persuade the people to obey him. Conflicted with Pope Innocent III, which caused a 5 year interdict. His situation reflected a growing discontent with the expanded scope of royal government.
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ROBIN HOOD
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Took place in the 1100’s; stories told in the 1200’s. Prince John is collecting illegal taxes, jailing people, etc. Prince John stole Robin’s father’s land, so Robin Hood lives in forest, takes from tax collectors to give back what rightfully belongs to the people. NOT stealing from rich to give to poor. Set the illegally jailed people free. Richard returns, Robin Hood turns himself in, Richard says: hey! Nice work upholding the law! Significance: RESPECT THE LAW!
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EL CID CAMPEADOR
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Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, from Castile, Iberia (Spain). He was a knight (took an oath directly to the king.) He was a very good knight and always won his battles--this made the other nobles jealous, so they spread rumors about him that he wanted the throne. The rumors turned the king against him, and so he exiled him from Castile. Then the king started losing all his battles, and called El Cid back only to exile him again later. This happened several times, and El Cid always refused to fight the king of Castile because of his oath. When El Cid conquered Valencia and was dying he did not leave the territory to his son, but insisted that it go to the king of Castile. The moral of the story is that honoring their word matters to Castilians.
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CATHEDRAL
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A church presided over by a Bishop. In early Middle Ages, the predominant style was Romanesque, but by the 14th century, Gothic was the quintessential cathedral style. It was the religious, social, and commercial focal point of a city, and it was crucial to medieval society because of its religious centrality.
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RENAISSANCE
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ca. 1340-1492. The transition from late Middle Ages to Renaissance was driven by events:
1. Black Plague 2. Crusades (began 1095) 3. Assault on the Church Secularization: still have religion, but secular life begins to matter more (Humanism -- study everything to learn about God). Prestige > wealth and patronage re-emerged Long-distance trade caused the spread of culture and ideas. Worldview: Since God created the world, His nature is echoed in all creation. Chain of Being. |
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JOHN WYCLIFFE
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1330-1384. Oxford scholar who inspired the Lollards. He believed that the true church was the community of believers NOT clerical hierarchy, and he emphasized reading the Bible in the vernacular. He also opposed papal authority influencing secular authority. Jan Hus and the Hussites admired him.
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THOMAS AQUINAS
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c.1225-1274. Predominant Medieval philosopher. He synthesized Christian doctrine and Aristotelian philosophy through the scholastic method which became influential throughout Western philosophical thought. He wrote the Summa Theologica and On Kingship and Summa Contra Gentiles. Emphasized reason + revelation.
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MICHELANGELO
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c. 1474-1564. An extremely talented Italian artist, he sculpted David and painted Sistine Chapel. Patronized by Lorenzo de Medici. He exerted unparalleled influence on the development of Western art.
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LEONARDO DA VINCI
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1452-1519. Italian. He was a true Renaissance polymath (master of many disciplines and areas), used perspective in his paintings. He revolutionized thought, experimentation, and art by the use of logic and empirical methods unusual for the time.
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AVIGNON PAPACY
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1309-1377. The King of France “kidnapped” the Pope. Catholics didn’t know if they could trust the Pope because of the King’s influence which resulted in the undermining of the papal authority. When the Pope returned, the cardinals elected a new pope, creating a schism. No one knew who the true pope was, so they had to decide for themselves. Created an ideal climate for the Reformation.
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DANTE
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An Italian poet of the Middle Ages from Florence (1265-1321) who wrote the Divine Comedy and influenced Western literature and philosophy by the use of elevated language and symbolism. He communicated an orderly and optimistic vision of the universe in an accessible way (example of Renaissance intellectual tradition).
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ERASMUS
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c. 1466-1536. Dutch Christian humanist and Augustinian monk who was allowed to leave the monastery as an independent scholar. He made a critical edition of the New Testament in Greek with a Latin translation and worked for a united, peaceful Christendom. In the “Letter to a Christian Prince”, he instructed future emperor Charles V.
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CHAIN OF BEING
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The idea of hierarchy of order in the Renaissance with three types: Vertical, Horizontal, and Circular--an immutable order in which the process doesn’t change. Everyone is connect to every else’s business in this chain of angels, humans, animals, plants, and inanimates.
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LORENZO VALLA
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1407-1457. Italian humanist, rhetorician, and educator, known for his textual analysis proving the Donation of Constantine to be a forgery.
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MIGUEL CERVANTES
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Wrote Don Quixote (1605). “In his novel Don Quixote, the Spanish writer Cervantes captured the disappointment of thwarted Spanish ambitions. Cervantes himself had been wounded at Lepanto. His novel’s hero, a minor nobleman, reads so many romances and books of chivalry that he loses his sense of proportion and wanders the countryside futilely trying to mimic the heroic deeds he has come across in his reading.”
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NICCOLÓ MACHIAVELLI
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(1469-1527) An Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. Founder of modern political science.
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TITIAN
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1490-1576. An Italian painter product of the Venetian School, who was known for his color focus which influenced Western Art.
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WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
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(1564-1616) English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language. His use of language helped shape modern English and his works influence English authors to this day.
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HUNDRED YEARS' WAR
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(1337-1453) Series of conflicts between England and France for control of the French throne.
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EL GRECO
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1541-1614. Spanish Renaissance painter, sculptor, and architect whose dramatic and expressionistic style was a precursor to both Expressionism and Cubism--connected Byzantine traditions with those of Western painting.
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THOMAS MORE
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(1478-1535) Lord Chancellor under Henry VIII. Wrote Utopia. He opposed the Protestant Reformation and Henry VIII break from Rome and refused to accept Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England. He was tried for treason, convicted, and beheaded.
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MARTIN LUTHER
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1483-1546. A German monk who started the Protestant Reformation in 1517 by challenging the practices and doctrines of the Catholic Church and advocating salvation through faith alone.
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COUNCIL OF TRENT
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A general council of the Catholic church that met at Trent between 1545 and 1563 to set Catholic doctrine, majorly reform church practices, and defend the church against the Protestant challenge. It also clarified Catholic teaching on many issues that were central to the sixteenth-century debates over religion.
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DIET OF WORMS
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(1521) An imperial council called by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at which Luther was to defend his theology. The Diet condemned Luther’s writings and ordered him to renounce his beliefs. Luther refused and the Emperor declared him an outlaw.
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JOHANN TETZEL
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A German priest who sold indulgences in Wittenberg where Luther was a university professor; helped raise awareness to Luther of this corrupted practice in the Church.
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HULDRYCH ZWINGLI
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1484-1531. The chief preacher of Zurich who helped the Reformation by attacking corruption and fasting and clerical celibacy in the Church. Also, he led the belief that the Eucharist is a symbol of Christ’s union with believers.
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PEACE OF AUGSBURG
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The treaty of 1555 that settled disputes between Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his Protestant princes. It recognized the Lutheran church and established the principle that all Catholic or Lutheran princes enjoyed the sole right to determine the religion of their lands and subjects. It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire.
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JOHN CALVIN
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1509-1564. French born Christian humanist and founder of Calvinism, one of the major branches of the Protestant Reformation; he led the reform movement in Geneva, Switzerland from 1541-1564. His movement centered on individualistic religion and belief.
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39 ARTICLES
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1571 establishment of the definitive statement of the doctrine of the Church of England by King Edward VI and Queen Elizabeth I.
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CUIUS REGIO, EIUS RELIGIO
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Latin phrase meaning “Whose realm, his religion.” The religion of the ruler dictated the religion of the ruled. This principle marked the end of the first wave of organized military action between Protestants and Catholics.
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NICHOLAS COPERNICUS
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(1473-1543) Held the position of canon at the Frauenburg cathedral in Poland. He was committed to a heliostatic and heliocentric conception of the universe.
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FRANCIS BACON
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1561-1626 Attended Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied law. In 1618, he became Lord High Chancellor and then confessed to taking bribes. Philosopher, attempted to replace Aristotle, named his book the Organon after Aristotle’s collection of works. Significance: “Baconianism has evolved into a synonym for the supposed method of modern scientific discovery marked by robust empiricism and inductive logic.”
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ANDREAS VESALIUS
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(1514-1564) Author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, On the Fabric of the Human Body. Often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V. Used public dissections, which he performed himself, to refute Galen’s On the Construction of the Human Body.
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RENÉ DESCARTES
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(1596-1650) French Catholic mathematician and philosopher who wrote Discourse on Method (1637). “I think, therefore I am.” He believed that human reason could unravel the secrets of nature and prove the existence of God. He founded the scientific method in which the first step was to ask a question. He laid the foundation for 17th century continental rationalism.
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GALILEO GALILEI
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(1564-1642) Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His improvement of the telescope led him to make astronomical observations that supported Copernicanism. Co-opted in the 1800s as a story of faith versus reason, and epistemology trumping religion, rather than what it was, a story of people’s understanding of science, tradition, and scripture changing.
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ISAAC NEWTON
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Father of modern scientific theory, combined theories of both Descartes and Bacon: start by asking a question, and try to be as objective as possible in your gathering of data. First, collect lots of data, then come up with an explanation of the data. Then come up with something that disproves your explanation. Keep repeating this until you find nothing that disproves your data, then submit your experiment to the scientific community and let them test it. Newton maintained that science was a way to know some true things (but even then, cannot be 100% certain) and thus, Newton understood that science cannot answer every question. Science must happen in a community.
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VASCO DA GAMA
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c. 1460-1524. Portuguese sailor who was commissioned by the king to find a maritime route to the East. Instrumental in the history of maritime navigation.
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ABSOLUTISM
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A system of government in which the ruler claims sole and uncontestable power, including power to suspend the law if necessary. Supported by many early-moderns (and Dr. Stewart) for theological, philosophical, and pragmatic reasons.
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CHARLES OF ENGLAND
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r. 1625-1649. King of England. Refused to call Parliament into session between 1629-1640 and tried to impose more ceremony in the church. When parliament reconvened in 1640, they tried to curb the kings oppressions. Charles invaded parliament which led to English Civil War. Parliamentarians won and Charles was beheaded January 30, 1649.
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CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
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1451-1506. An Italian sailor who opened up the New World by sailing west across the Atlantic in search of a route to Asia.
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JACQUES-BÉNIGNE BOSSUET
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1627-1704. Spokesman for Louis XIV’s absolutism. Believed that people cannot subject everything to reason.
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OLIVER CROMWELL
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Led parliamentary troops in English Civil War. Rump parliament set him up as chairman of the Council of State after the death of Charles I. Cromwell extended state power and laid the foundation for a Great Britain. He eventually abolished parliament and declared himself Lord Protector and began to use iron fist on his enemies.
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FERDINAND MAGELLAN
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1480-1521. Circumnavigated the globe, proving that the earth was round, which allowed for further exploration.
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LOUIS XIV
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French king (r. 1643-1715) who in theory personified absolutism but in practice had to gain the cooperation of nobles, local officials, and even the ordinary subjects who manned his armies and paid his taxes.
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JOHN LOCKE
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1632-1704. Argued that individuals possessed God-given rights. wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government which formed the foundation for classical liberal ideas of government for the next 200 years. Basically he’s like the best person ever.
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