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280 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Comparative Anatomy |
Study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different individuals, species or taxa. |
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Functional Anatomy |
The performance of structures within an organism. Ex: cells, tissues, organs, organ systems |
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Form and Function |
Relationship between the appearance, location, origin of a structure and it's biological purpose |
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Physiology |
The physical appearance and mechanical properties of a structure |
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Behavior |
The effect of |
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Development |
Description of the physiological changes that occur during an individual's lifespan |
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Ontogeny |
Development of an individual from development to maturity |
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Embryology |
Study of ontogeny |
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Phylogenetics |
Study of the evolutionary relationships between species |
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Evolution |
Descent with modification by means of natural selection |
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Isometry |
Relative growth in which different parts of the body grow at the same rate. |
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Allometry |
Relative growth in which different parts of the body change disproportionally (at different rates) |
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Heterochrony |
Genetic shift in the timing of the development of a body part or process relative to the ancestral condition. Results in allometric growth and/or paedomorphosis. |
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Paedomorphosis |
The retention of juvenile characteristics in the adult stage. |
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Peramorphosis |
Change in the rate of development that allows for changes beyond the ancestral condition. |
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Monophyly |
A taxon or group of organisms that includes all known descendants of a common ancestor |
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Paraphyly |
A taxon or group that excludes descendants from a common ancestor, or includes descendants from a different common ancestor. Opposite of a monophyletic group. |
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Homologous |
Fundamental similarity among organs as a result of common evolutionary origins (sharing a common ancestor). |
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Analogous |
Functional similarity between nonhomologous structures. |
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Phylogeny |
Classification of species, groups based on evolutionary relationships |
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Cladogram |
Graphical representation of phylogenetic relationships |
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Clade |
Specific group or classification based on shared or absent characteristics |
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Synapomorphy |
Shared, derived characteristic not found in ancestors or outgroups |
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Taxa |
Find def |
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Synapomorphies of Deuterostomes |
1. Radial, indeterminate cleavage 2. Blastopore develops into anus 3.Coelom is an enterocoele (mesoderm derived from outpocketings of archenteron) 4. Looped, ciliated band in larvae |
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Synapomorphies of Vertebrates |
1. Pharyngeal gill slits 2. Endostyle 3. Notochord 4. Single, dorsal, hollow nerve cord 5. Post anal tail |
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Synapomorphies of Craniates |
1. Neural crest 2. Neurogenic placodes 3. Cranium 4. Tripartite brain 5. Cranial nerves 6. Complex sense organs 7. Complex endocrine system 8. Muscular gut tube 9. Differentiated digestive organs 10. Gills 11. Heart with 2 or more chambers 12. Red blood cells/Hemoglobin |
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Chordata |
Group includes tunicates, amphioxus and craniates |
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Craniata |
Chordate group excluding tunicates and amphioxus. |
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Vertebrata |
Craniate group that excludes hagfishes. ~64,000 species 5% of names species |
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Gnathostomata |
Vertebrate group that excludes lampreys. Defined by the presence of jaws. |
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Osteichthyes |
Gnathostome group that excludes chondrichthyes. Defined by the presence of ossified bones. |
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Class Sarcopterygii |
Lobe-finned fishes. Osteichthyes group including lungfishes, coelocanths and tetrapods, excluding Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes). ~8 species |
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Rhipidistia |
Sarcopterygii group excluding coelocanths (Actinistia). |
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Tetrapoda |
Rhipidistian group excluding lungfishes (Dipnoi). |
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Amniota |
Tetrapod group excluding Lissamphibia. |
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Sauropsida |
Amniote group encompassing Reptilia and Aves. |
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Diapsida |
Sauropsid group excluding testudines (turtles) |
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Archosauria |
Diapsid group excluding Lepidosauria (tuataran and squamates). |
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Mammalia |
Amniote group excluding encompassing monotremes and Theria, excluding Sauropsids. |
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Theria |
Mammalian group excluding Monotremata. |
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Metatheria |
Marsupial mammals |
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Eutherians |
Placental mammals |
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Class Petromyzontida |
Lampreys ~50 species Craniate, Vertebrate Chondocranium only |
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Class Chondrichthyes |
Cartilaginous fishes composed of Elasmobranchii (sharks, skates and rays) and Holocephali (chimaeras). ~1000 species |
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Class Actinopterygii |
Ray finned fishes composed of Chondrostei and Neopterygii. ~30,000 species 50% of vertebrate species |
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Class Amphibia |
Tetrapods that require water to complete life cycle. Includes Anura (frogs and toads), Caudata (salamanders) and Gymnophiona (caecilians) ~7000 species 11% of vertebrate species |
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Reptiles |
Paraphyletic group composed of Testudines (turtles and tortoises), Sphenodontia, Squamata (lizards and snakes) and Crocodilia. ~10,000 species 15% of vertebrates |
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Class Aves |
Birds. Composed of 2 groups: Palaeognathae (ostriches, kiwis, emus) and Neognathae. ~10,000 species 15% of vertebrates |
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Class Mammalia |
Includes monotremes (platypus + echidnas), Metatheria and Eutheria. ~5,500 species 8% of vertebrates |
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Body Plan |
Same common body plan among all vertebrates that is highly adaptable to many different environments. |
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Embryogenesis |
The formation of the embryo. 1) Fertilization 2) Cleavage 3) Organogenesis 4) Gastrulation 5) Neurulation |
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Fate Mapping |
Method for tracing the fate of cells, tissues or organs via cell marking, cell transplanting or cell removal. |
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Surface Area |
Area of tissue that is in contact with the external environment |
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Invagination |
The formation of in-pocketings that increase the overall surface area. |
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Gamete |
Haploid cells |
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Zygote |
Unicellular diploid cell formed from the fusion of two gametes |
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Embryo |
Developing cell that forms a future individual. |
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Morula |
Formed during cleavage of the zygote into 16-34 cells. Note that no cytoplasmic growth has occurred, so morula is the same size as the zygote. |
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Blastula |
Formation of embryo cell with a hollow inner space (blastocoele) from the morula |
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Gastrula |
Embryo cell formed from the invagination and formation of germ layers after the blastul |
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Neurula |
Embryo cell that occurs after the formation of the neural tube. |
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Fertilization |
Process in which 2 haploid gametes become a single diploid zygote |
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Cleavage |
Process in which the unicellular zygote becomes a multicellular morula, and then a hollow blastula |
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Gastrulation |
Process in which a unilaminar blastula becomes a trilaminar gastrula |
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Neurulation |
Process in which the neural plate folds inward to form the neural tube, and the gastrula becomes neurula. |
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Organogenesis |
Formation of organs within the embryo |
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Blastocoele |
Inner hollow cavity of the blastula |
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Archenteron |
Inner cavity formed by the invagination of the blastula |
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Blastopore |
Point at which the space of the archenteron makes contact with the outer environment |
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Gut |
Surrounded by endodermal tissue, will develop into the digestive tract |
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Coelom |
Inner cavity that will hold most of the organs, surrounded by mesodermal tissue |
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Neural Crest |
Portion of ectodermally derived neural plate that breaks off during neurulation |
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Neurogenic Placodes |
Ectodermally derived neural tissue that travel throughout the body during development |
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Neural Tube |
Hollow tube that runs longitudinally along the dorsal side of the organism |
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Notochord |
Hydrostat reinforced with a helical arrangement of fibers designed to resist compression while still allowing flexion. Well developed in hagfish and lampreys, reduced in most vertebrates. |
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Endoderm |
Innermost layer of tissue |
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Mesoderm |
Middle layer of tissue |
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Ectoderm |
Outer layer of tissue |
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Chordamesoderm |
Portion of mesoderm that develops into the notocord |
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Epithelium |
Ectodermally derived, tissue that covers the organs to provide a barrier between the outer and inner environement |
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Mesenchyme |
Undifferentiated, mesodermally derived cells |
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Connective |
Fibrous tissue separated by the extracellular matrix to provide support and to bind other tissues together |
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Muscle |
Active contractile tissue used to provide force for locomotion or for movement within the body |
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Nervous |
Tissue which receives, transmits and propagates impulses |
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Integumentary System |
Skin and integumentary appendages such as feathers, scales, claws, nails, hair, etc. |
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Skeletal System |
Cranial (chondocranium, splanchocranium and dermatocranium) and post-cranial (appendicular and axial) skeletal elements. |
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Muscular System |
Composed of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle. |
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Nervous System |
Composed of the sense organs, brain, nerve cord and nerves. |
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Digestive System |
Composed of the oral cavity and pharynx, gut tube and accessory glands. |
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Respiratory System |
Includes pharynx, larynx, nasal cavity and lungs, as well as gills. |
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Circulatory System |
Composed of the heart, arteries and veins. |
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Excretory and Reproductive System |
Composed of kidneys and gonadal organs. |
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Epidermis |
Squamous (columnar) cells that originate in the stratum germinativum form an outermost (stratified) layer. Contains high levels of keratin. |
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Dermis |
Lower layer of skin composed of the loosely packed stratum laxum and the more organized stratum compacteum. Composed of collagenous tissues, chromatophores, elastic fibers and macromolecules. |
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Stratum corneum |
Outer, hardened layer of the epidermis |
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Stratum germinativum |
Lower layer of epidermis composed of columnar cells |
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Stratum laxum |
Upper layer of dermis composed of loosely packed fibers |
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Stratum compactum |
Lower layer of dermis composed of firmly packed fibers |
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Epithelial |
Ectodermally derived cells that pack tightly to form thick boundaries |
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Mesenchyme |
Mesodermally derived tissue that differentiate into specialized cells |
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Fibroblast |
Connective tissue cell that secretes collagen and elastic fibers into the extracellular matrix |
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Chromatophores/Chromatocytes |
Pigment cells. Chromatophores found in amphibians reptiles, chromatocytes found birds and mammals |
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Biochromes |
Responsible for chemical changes in colourations. |
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Schemochromes |
Responsible for structural changes in colouration |
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Collagen |
Primary material of the dermis |
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Keratin |
Primary material of the epidermis and other epidermal growths such as hair, claws |
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Unicellular glands |
Glands found in the epidermis of fishes |
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Multicellular glands |
Glands found in the epidermis of amphibians, birds and mammals |
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Basal lamina |
Periphery between the epidermis and the dermis. |
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Skeleton |
The basic framework of the body that contributes to the overall shape. Provides support for locomotion, feeding, and respiration. Protects the internal organs, supplies blood tissue and acts as a reservoir for minerals |
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Collagen |
Material that forms most of the extracellular matrix of connective and skeletal tissues. Composed of multiple, organized fibril strands. |
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General Connective Tissue |
Tissue characterized by an extensive extracellular matrix of fibers that connects other tissues and supports the body. Composed of collagen, elastin, and ground substance and houses fibroblast, macrophage and fat cells. Can describe either loose or dense connective tissue |
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Loose Connective Tissue |
Type of connective tissue secrete by fibroblasts that serves to bind tissues together. Ex: Adipose, areolar, reticular tissue. |
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Adipose Tissue |
Formed from modified fibroblasts in adipocytes. Used for macronutrient storage as subcutaneous fat, visceral fat, yellow bone marrow and within the breast tissue. Different types can be white, brown or pink. |
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Irregular Dense Connective Tissue |
Forms capsules around organs, ligaments and tendons. Primarily found in the dermis and characterized by densely packed collagen fibers and reduced number of fibroblasts. |
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Regular Dense Connective Tissue |
Connects tissue to bones, muscles to muscles, or bones to other bones( joints). Is generally weaker than irregular dense connective tissue. Ex: Tendons, fasciae, tendons |
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Ligaments |
Dense regular tissue that connects bones to bones, such as between joints. Composed of layers of tightly packed bundles of collagen fibers |
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Tendons |
Dense regular tissues that connects tissues to bones in a specific direction. Composed of fibers arranged into a cable-like structure. |
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Fasciae |
Dense regular connective tissue that connects muscles to muscles. Forms fibrous, transparent tissue divisions. |
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Special Connective Tissue |
Blood, cartilage and bone |
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Blood |
Special connective tissue that functions as a transportation vehicle for nutrients, oxygen, macrophages, etc. Originate from the bone marrow. |
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Cartilage |
Non-vascular special connective tissue derived from chondroblasts --> chondrocytes Highly elastic, rigid tissue that resists compression Can be strengthened by calcium deposition
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Bone |
Vascularized special connective tissue derived from osteoblasts --> osteocytes Less elastic, very rigid and resistant to compression, highly mineralized through calcification |
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Stress |
Force which is applied to a material in the form of compressions, tension, shear, torsion or bending. |
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Strain |
Deformation in a material as result of stress |
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Modulus of Elasticity |
Measure of the elastic properties of a material = stress/strain |
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Elastic region |
The amount of stress a material is able to tolerate with minimal strain, and upon the removal of stress will return to it's normal shape. |
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Plastic region |
The amount of stress needed to push a material past it's yield point, at which upon the removal of stress the material will not return to it's original shape |
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Yield point |
The amount of stress or strain at which the elastic region transitions into the plastic region |
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Histology |
the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues in plants and animals |
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Osteoclasts |
Cells that degrade old bone tissue by the secretion of a strong acid |
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Dermal bone |
Bone formed through intramembranous ossification |
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Replacement bone |
Bones formed from endochondral ossification |
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Intramembranous ossification |
Formation of dermal bone from connective tissue. Forms flat bones, skull, mandible, maxilla and clavicle bones.
1) Development of ossification center (nidus) 2) Calcification 3) Formation of trabeculae 4) Development of periosteum |
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Endochondral ossification |
Formation of replacement bone via the calcification of hyaline cartilage. Forms long bones in the body.
1) Formation of periosteum from perichondrium 2) development of the primary ossification center 2) Formation of bone collar 4) Development of secondary ossification center |
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Cellular bone |
Bone defined by the presence of osteocytes embedded in lacunae |
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Acellular bone |
Bone defined by the retreat of osteoblasts during matrix secretion |
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Woven-fibered bone |
Bone in which collagen fibers form randomly organized bundles. Often found in juveniles |
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Lamellar bone |
Bone in which collagen bundles are organized into parallel lamella sheets. Found in adults |
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Compact bone |
Also known as cortical bone. The dense, peripheral tissue that forms along the perimeter of the bone |
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Cancellous bone |
Also known as trabecular or spongy bone. Highly vascularized bone tissue adjacent to the marrow cavity and near the end of the bone. Less dense and contains most of the surface area of the bone. |
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Perichondrium |
The connective tissue covering of cartilage |
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Periosteum |
The connective tissue covering of a bone |
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Osteoblast |
Cellular precursor to the bone cell (osteocyte) |
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Osteocyte |
Mature cell embedded in the lamellae of the bone |
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Osteiod |
Matrix of polysaccharide and collagen and hydroxyapatite secreted by osteaoblasts |
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Ossification centre |
Area where osteoblasts collect to begin the ossification process |
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Trabecula |
Bony rods formed by the secretions of the osteoblast. Multiple trabelulae coalesce to form calcified segments of bone |
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Epiphysis |
The extremities of a limb bone |
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Diaphysis |
The shaft of a limb bone |
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Epiphyseal plates |
Junctions housing chondrocytes between bone formed between the primary ossification center in a the diaphysis and the secondary ossification center in the epiphysis during endochondral ossification. |
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Marrow |
Central portion of bone that houses osteoblasts, marrow cells, red blood cells, blood vessels and fat cell. |
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Lamella |
Layers of calcified tissue that house osteocytes embedded in lacunae |
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Lacuna |
Small cavity within the lamella of the bone containing an osteocyte |
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Cannaliculi |
Minute cytoplasmic process of the osteocyte extending into the lamella. |
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Haversian system |
Cylindrical unit of bone consisting of concentric layers secreted by osteoblasts that have developed around a central cavity containing blood vessels. Also known as an osteon |
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Haversian canal |
Hollow tunnel containing blood vessels. Formed by osteoclasts |
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Synarthroses |
Joints with restricted movement. Allow room for growth but not movement |
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Sutures |
Immovable joint in which the bones are separated by a septum of fibrous connective tissue. Found between the dermal bones of the skull. |
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Synchondroses |
A joint in which the bones are separated by cartilage, Found between bones in the chondocranium. Ex: Epiphyseal plate in long bones |
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Amphiarthroses |
Also known as symphyses. Joints that allow for a limited range of movement. Ex: Chin, pubic bone |
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Diarthroses |
Also known as synovial joints. Allow for a wide range of movement. Ex: Knee joint |
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Kinematic chains |
Connection between bones and cartilage in such a way that movement of one causes the movement of the other. Ex: Sling jaw wrasse |
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Neural arch |
Protrusion that extends dorsally around the spinal chord |
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Hemal arch |
Protrusion that extends ventrally around the caudal artery and vein. Appear in the caudal vertebrae. |
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Neural spine |
Protrusion dorsal to neural arch that increases surface area for muscle attachment |
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Hemal spine |
Protrusion ventral to hemal arch that increases surface area for muscle attahcment |
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Transverse processes |
Lateral protrusions that increase the strength of the vertebral column by resisting compression and twisting forces |
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Zygapophyses |
Process of the neural arch that articulates with a comparable process on the adjacent vertebra. Resist vertical bending but allow for lateral flexion |
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Intervertebral formina |
Holes that allow for passage of the spinal nerves |
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Centrum |
Central part of the vertebral complex. Hollow in some species to allow for passage of the notocord; ossified in species where the notocord in reduced. |
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Intervertebral pads |
Remnant of the notocord in the form of cartilaginous cushions between the centra. |
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Diplospondyly |
Condition found in fish and basal tetrapods where the centra are doubled to provide extra flexibility |
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Amphicoelous |
Condition found in fishes and early tetrapods in which both surfaces of the vertebrae are concave. Hollow centra may provide passage for notocord. Flexible arrangement that resists compression and allows for lateral bending. |
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Procoelous |
Condition in which the cranial surface of the vertebra is concave and the caudal surface is convex. |
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Opisthocoelous |
Condition found in amphibians and stem amniotes in which the cranial surface of the vertebra is convex and the caudal surface is concave. Achieves a reduction in dislocation and increase in strength. |
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Acoelous |
Condition in which the surface of the vertebrae are flat, connected by intervertebral discs. Found in basal amniotes, birds and mammals. |
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Heterocoelous |
Condition in which the vertebrae are saddle shaped to provide maximum flexibility. Found in the next of birds. |
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Basapophysis |
Transverse process on the hemal arch to which the subperitoneal rib of a fish attaches |
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Parapophysis |
Small transverse process of the centrum that articulates with the capitulum of the rib |
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Diapophysis |
Small transverse process from the neural arch that articulates with the tuberculum of the rib |
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Pleurapophyses |
Enlarged transverse process of the vertebra formed from the fusion of the rib primordia, diapophysis and parapophysis. |
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Myosepta |
Transverse aggregation of mesenchyme cells to form connective tissue between myomeres |
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Intermuscular ribs |
Dorsal ribs that develop in the myosepta and attach to the centrum |
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Subperitoneal ribs |
Ventral ribs that develop in the myosepta and attach to the basapophysis |
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Capitulum |
Most proximal end of the rib |
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Sternum |
Breastbone found in most tetrapods. Located ventrally between the pectoral girdle. |
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Cheeky weeky |
Proper name for what is colloquially called a "cheek" |
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Lever |
Mechanical device that transfers muscle force to a point of application via a pivot or fulcrum |
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First order lever |
A lever in which the in-force is applied on one side of the fulcrum to deliver the out-force to the other side of the fulcrum. Ex: movement of skull along the atlas |
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Second order lever |
A lever in which the in-force in applied farther from the fulcrum to deliver the out-force located closer to the fulcrum. Ex: Lifting heel of foot |
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Third order lever |
A lever in which the in-force is applied closer to the fulcrum to deliver the out-force located farther from the fulcrum. Ex: Flexion of arm |
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Rib |
Rod shaped bones that develop as lateral cartilaginous projections from the vertebrae in the myosepta and are later ossified, though the distal ends remain cartilaginous to articulate with the sternum. Provide strength to the body wall and protect the visceral organs. |
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Atlas |
The first cervical vertebra in tetrapods that articulates with the skull. Allows for dorsal-ventral motion. |
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Axis |
The second cervical vertebra in mammals, allows for rotary movement |
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Cervical vertebra |
Vertebrae that begin at the skull to the pectoral girdle. 7 in mammals. |
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Thoracic vertebra |
Vertebrae that extend from the pectoral girdle and articulate with the ribs. |
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Lumbar vertebra |
Vertebrae that lack articulation with the rib until the pelvic girdle. |
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Sacral vertebra |
Vertebrae of the pelvic girdle |
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Caudal vertebra |
Vertebrae from post-anal region to the tail |
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Intercentrum |
Ventral body of the vertebra that lies between the pleurocentrum. Greatly reduced or lost in sauropsids and synapsids. |
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Pleurocentrum |
Dorsolateral element of the vertebral body that becomes the centrum in amniotes |
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Caudal fin |
Tail fin |
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Dorsal fin |
Back fin |
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Anal fin |
Ventral fin caudal to the anus |
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Arcualia |
Small arches of cartilage or bone that contribute to the formation of the vertebrae. Found in lampreys. |
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Heterocercal tail |
Plesiomorphic state where the vertebral column extends dorsally up the tail |
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Hypocercal tail |
In which the vertebral column extends ventrally down the tail. Characteristic of teleosts. |
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Homocercal tail |
Superficially symmetrical caudal fin |
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Diphycercal tail |
Modified type of symmetrical caudal fin found in lungfishes and Sarcopterygians |
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Rhachitomous |
Condition found in basal tetrapods where the centrum is composed of a pair of smaller pleurocentra and a large intercentrum that allows for passage of the notocord |
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Holospondylus |
Condition found in extant amphibians where the neural arch is fused to the centra. Often coupled with diplospondyli. |
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Chevron bones |
Projection in caudal vertebrae homologous to the hemal arch. |
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Autonomy |
Self amputation used by amphibians, reptiles and mammals as a defense mechanisms |
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Synsacrum |
Fusion of lumbar and sacral vertebrae with the pelvic girdle in birds to provide stregnth and shock absorption for bipedalism |
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Pygostyle |
Fusion of distal caudal vertebrae in birds that supports the tail feathers |
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Keel |
Outgrowth of the sternum that serves as the origin for flight muscles in birds |
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Sacrum |
Fusion of at least 3 sacral vertebrae into a solid structure connected to the pelvic girdle |
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Coccyx |
Fusion of of 3 to 5 caudal vertebrae to form a solid structure used as an attachment for anal and perineal muscle. |
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Trunk vertebrae |
Relatively undifferentiated vertebrae from the atlas to the anus |
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Ceratotrichia |
Collagenous, horny component of fin rays in chondrichthyans |
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Lepidotrichia |
Non-collagenous, bony component of fin rays in Actinopterygians |
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Abbreviated heterocercal tail |
Found in Neopterygians |
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Hypapophysis |
Ventral projection from the centrum of cervical vertebrae used as points of attachment for muscles and ligaments |
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Sphenodon |
Unique reptile in the order Rhynchocephalia, genus tuatara that has retained the intercentra in the trunk vertebrae and the notochord. |
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Plastron |
Bony carapace of turtles formed from modified ribs and dermal bone. |
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Abdominal rib |
Rib bone embedded in the ventral abdominal muscle found in early reptiles and fossilized amphibians. Can be dermal or replacement bone. |
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Ilium |
Upper portion of pelvic girdle that articulates with the sacral rib |
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Ischium |
Lower, caudal portion of the pelvic girdle |
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Pubis |
Lower, cranial portion of the pelvic girdle |
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Pevic Symphysis |
Midventral connection between the two sides of the pelvic girdle |
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Acetabulum |
Portion of pelvic girdle where the ilium, ischium and pubis bones meet to articulate with the femur |
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Femur |
Stylopodium of the pelvic appendages |
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Tibia |
Zeugopodium of the pelvic appendages |
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Fibula |
Zeugopodium of the pelvic appendages |
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Tarsals |
Autopodium of the pelvic appendages |
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Metatarsals |
Autopodium of the pelvic appendages |
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Phalanges |
Most distal elements of the manus/pes (autopodium) |
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Scapulocoracoid |
Endochondrally derived portion of the pectoral girdle in chondrichthyans and fish |
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Scapula |
Endochondrally derived dorsal portion of the pectoral girdle in tetrapods |
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Coracoid |
Endochondrally derived ventral portion of the pectoral girdle in tetrapods |
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Glenoid fossa |
Portion of the scapula that articulates with the humerus |
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Stylopodium |
Most proximal portion of the pectoral/pelvic appendages |
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Zeugopodium |
Middle portion of the pectoral/pelvic appendages |
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Autopodium |
Distal portion of the pectoral/pelvic appendages |
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Basal pterygiophores |
Proximal portion of endoskeletal cartilage or bone that support the fin rays |
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Radial pterygiophores |
Distal portion of endoskeletal cartilage or bone supporting the fin rays |
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Humerus |
Stylopodium of the pectoral appendage |
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Radius |
Medial zeugopodium of the pectoral appendage |
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Ulna |
Lateral zeugopodium of the pectoral appendage |
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Carpals |
Proximal portion of autopodium of the pectoral appendage |
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Metacarpals |
Distal portion of autopodium in the pectoral appendage |
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Anterior coracoid |
Distinguishable by the presence of the coracoid foramen that allows passage for the pectoral nerve. Becomes reduced in synapsids and lost in therians. |
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Posterior coracoid |
Additional bone to the anterior coracoid, evolved in synapsids |
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Clavicle |
Dermal bone portion of the pectoral girdle that extends from the scapula to the sternum |
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Olecranon |
Dorsal process of the ulna, distal to the elbow joit that serve as an insertion point for limb extensor muscles |
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Pisiform |
Small carpal sesamoid bone located proximal to the ulna. Synapomorphy for reptilomorpha, aves and mammalia. |
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Pteroid bone |
Metacarpal wrist bone unique to pterosaurs that supports the wing membrane |
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Astragalus |
Tarsal bone formed from the fusion of the tibiale, intermedium and centrale in the pes. |
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Anura |
Lissamphibians that include frogs and toads. Display elongated, slender bones designed for leaping |
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Caudata |
Lissamphibians that include salamanders and newts. Short limbs and long tails, most resemble early amphibians |
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Gymnophiona |
Lissamphibians that include caecilians. Legless, streamlined body shape designed for swimming and digging. |
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Ground-up hypothesis |
Theory for the evolution of flight that hypothesizes that ancestral animals climbed up from the ground to develop flying ability |
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Tree-down hypothesis |
Theory for the evolution of flight |
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Fin fold hypothesis |
Theory for the evolution of paired fins based on the continuous lateral fin-folds in embryonic fish. Proposes that paired fins evolved through the loss of intermediate portions of the fin-fold into distinct pectoral and pelvic fins. |
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Furcula |
Wishbone, created from the fusion of the two clavicle bones |
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Cetacea |
Mammals that include whales, dolphins and porpoises. Adapted for aquatic habitat through a more streamlined body and fins for swimming. |
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Lagomorpha |
Mammals that include hares, rabbits and pikas. Have modified legs for leaping and digging. |
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Primates |
Mammals that include lemurs, monkeys, apes and humans. Have tails, nails, opposable thumbs, knuckle walking and bipedalism. |
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Mandibular branchiomere |
First branchiomere that develops into the palatoquadrate and mandible |
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Hyoid branchiomere |
Second branchiomere that develops into the hyomandibula, ceratohyal, hypohyal and basihyal |
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Glossopharyngeal branchiomere |
Third branchiomere that developed into the branchial arches |
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Vagal branchiomere |
Fourth to eighth branchiomeres that develop into the branchial arches |
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Gill slit |
Endodermally derived tissue that form between the branchiomeres |
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Cranial skeleton |
Functions to protect soft tissues (brain and sense organs) aid in the process of gathering and eating food, support for the respiratory system. Composed of the dermatocranium, chondrocranium and splanchnocranium |
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Dermatocranium |
Cranial bone formed through intramembranous ossification from the neural crest tissues that provides an outer casing for the skull |
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Chondocranium |
Cranial bone formed from endochondral ossification in mesoderm and neural crest tissues that surrounds and protects the major sense organs |
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Splanchnocranium |
Cranial bone formed through endochondral ossification in neural crest tissue. Form the upper and lower jaw, provide support for the pharynx and gills. |
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Scutes |
Dermally derived scale-like covering on the dermatocranium found in armadillos |
