Test 2

Front 1

a systematic way of organizing and explaining observations

Back 1

theory

Front 2

a tentative belief or educated guess that purports to predict or explain the relationship between two or more variables

Back 2

hypothesis

Front 3

a phenomenon that changes across circumstances or varies among individuals

Back 3

variable

Front 4

a variable that can be placed on a continuum from none or little to much

Back 4

continuous variable

ex. IQ

Front 5

a variable comprised of groupings, classifications, or categories

Back 5

categorical variable

ex. gender

Front 6

procedures applied uniformly to participants that minimize unintended variation (keeping the experiment the same for all participants)

Back 6

standardized procedures

Front 7

a group of people or animals of interest to a researcher from which a sample is drawn

Back 7

population

Front 8

a sample that reflects characteristics of the population as a whole

Back 8

representative

Front 9

a subgroup of a population likely to be representative of the population as a whole

Back 9

sample

Front 10

the individuals who participate in a study

Back 10

participants / subjects

Front 11

the applicability of a study's findings to the entire population of interest

Back 11

generalizability

Front 12

the extent to which a study is methodologically adequate (representative sample, standardized procedures)

Back 12

internal validity

Front 13

the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to situations outside the laboratory

Back 13

external validity

Front 14

what must be present for a study to be generalizable / valid?

Back 14

internal and external validity

Front 15

the trade-off between internal and external validity

Back 15

experimenter's dilemma

Front 16

a concrete way of assessing a variable

Back 16

measure

Front 17

a measure's ability to produce consistent results

Back 17

reliability

Front 18

tendency of a test to yield relatively similar scores for the same individual over time

Back 18

test-retest reliability

Front 19

what are the three kinds of reliability?

Back 19

test-retest reliability, internal consistency, interrater reliability

Front 20

the extent to which a test measures the construct it attempts to assess, or a study adequately addresses the hypothesis it attempts to assess

Back 20

validity

Front 21

the degree to which a measure appears to measure what it purports to measure

Back 21

face validity

Front 22

the degree to which a measure actually assesses what it claims to measure

Back 22

construct validity

Front 23

the degree to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish among groups on the basis of certain behaviors or responses

Back 23

criterion validity

Front 24

what are the three types of validity?

Back 24

face validity, construct validity, criterion validity

Front 25

the part of a subject's score on a test that is unrelated to the true score

Back 25

error

Front 26

what are the three types of research?

Back 26

descriptive, experimental correlational

Front 27

research methods that cannot unambiguously demonstrate cause and effect, including case studies, naturalistic observation, survey research, and correlational methods

Back 27

descriptive research

Front 28

in-depth observation of one subject or a small group of subjects

Back 28

case study

Front 29

two problems with case studies:

Back 29

1) hard to make generalizations about population
2) researcher bias

Front 30

the extent to which a test measures the construct it attempts to assess, or a study adequately addresses the hypothesis it attempts to assess

Back 30

validity

Front 31

the degree to which a measure appears to measure what it purports to measure

Back 31

face validity

Front 32

the degree to which a measure actually assesses what it claims to measure

Back 32

construct validity

Front 33

the degree to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish among groups on the basis of certain behaviors or responses

Back 33

criterion validity

Front 34

what are the three types of validity?

Back 34

face validity, construct validity, criterion validity

Front 35

the part of a subject's score on a test that is unrelated to the true score

Back 35

error

Front 36

what are the three types of research?

Back 36

descriptive, experimental correlational

Front 37

research methods that cannot unambiguously demonstrate cause and effect, including case studies, naturalistic observation, survey research, and correlational methods

Back 37

descriptive research

Front 38

in-depth observation of one subject or a small group of subjects

Back 38

case study

Front 39

two problems with case studies:

Back 39

1) hard to make generalizations about population
2) researcher bias

Front 40

the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting

Back 40

naturalistic observation

Front 41

research asking a large sample of participants questions, often about attitudes or behaviors, using questionnaires or interviews

Back 41

survey research

Front 42

a research tool in which the investigator asks the participant questions

Back 42

interviews

Front 43

research tools in which the investigator asks participants to respond to a written list of questions or items

Back 43

questionnaires

Front 44

a sample of participants selected from the population in a relatively arbitrary manner

Back 44

random sample

Front 45

two problems with naturalistic observation:

Back 45

1) cannot determine cause and effect relationships
2) researcher bias

Front 46

a sample selected to represent subpopulations / demographic characteristics proportionately, randomizing only within groups (such as age or race)

Back 46

stratified random sample

Front 47

problem with survey research:

Back 47

rely on participants to repot on themselves truthfully and accurately, may not know

Front 48

the statistical average of the scores of all participants on a measure

Back 48

mean

Front 49

the score that falls in the middle of the distribution of scores, with half of the participants scoring below it and half above it

Back 49

median

Front 50

the most common or most frequent score or value of a variable observed in a sample

Back 50

mode

Front 51

the extent to which participants tend to vary from each other in their scores on a measure

Back 51

variability of scores

Front 52

a measure of variability that represents the difference between the highest and the lowers value on a variable obtained in a sample

Back 52

range

Front 53

the amount that the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample on a measure

Back 53

standard deviation

Front 54

variability can be tested by:

Back 54

range and standard deviation

Front 55

a research design in which investigators manipulate some aspect of a situation and examine the impact of this manipulation on the way participants respond

Back 55

experimental research

Front 56

the variables an experimenter manipulates or whose effects the experimenter assesses

Back 56

independent variables

Front 57

participants' responses in a study, hypothesized to depend on the influence of the independent variables

Back 57

dependent variables

Front 58

values or versions of the independent variable that vary across experimental groups

Back 58

conditions

Front 59

turning an abstract concept or variable into a concrete form that can be defined by some set of operations or actions

Back 59

operationalizing

Front 60

steps in conducting an experiment

Back 60

frame the hypothesis, operational variables, standardize procedure, select participants, apply statistical techniques, draw conclusions

Front 61

participants in an experiment who receive a relatively neutral condition to serve as a comparison group

Back 61

control group

Front 62

cues in the experimental situation that reveal the experimenter's purpose

Back 62

demand characteristics

Front 63

studies in which participants are kept unaware of or "blind" to important aspects of the research

Back 63

blind studies

Front 64

a phenomenon in which an experimental manipulation produces an effect because participants believe it will produce an effect

Back 64

placebo effect

Front 65

a study in which participants are kept blind to crucial information, notably about the experimental condition in which they have been placed

Back 65

single-blind study

Front 66

a study in which both participants and researchers are blind to the status of participants

Back 66

double-blind study

Front 67

a variable that could produce effects that are confused, or confounded, with the effects of the independent variable

Back 67

confounding variable

Front 68

numbers hat describe the data from a study in a way that summarizes their essential features

Back 68

descriptive research

Front 69

procedures for assessing whether the results obtained with a sample are likely to reflect characteristics of the population as a whole

Back 69

inferential statistics

Front 70

research designs that employ the logic of experimental methods but lack absolute control over variables

Back 70

quasi-experimental designs

Front 71

the probability that obtained findings were accidental or just a matter of chance

Back 71

probability value

Front 72

research that assesses the degree to which two variables are related, so that knowing the value of one can lead to prediction of the other

Back 72

correlational research

Front 73

in research, to assess the extent to which the measure of one variable predicts the measure of a second variable

Back 73

correlate

Front 74

an index of the extent to which two variables are related

Back 74

correlations coefficient

Front 75

a relation between two variables in which the higher one is, the higher the other tends to be

Back 75

positive correlation

Front 76

a relation between two variables in which the higher one is, the lower the other tends to be

Back 76

negative correlation

Front 77

a table presenting the correlations among several variables

Back 77

correlation matrix

Front 78

the process by which the sense organs gather information about the environment

Back 78

sensation

Front 79

the process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets sensations

Back 79

perception

Front 80

the brach of psychology that studies the relationship between attributes of the physical world and the psychological experiences of them

Back 80

psychophysics

Front 81

three basic principles about the senses

Back 81

there is no 1:1 ratio between the physical and psychological, sensation and perception are active, not passive, sensation and perception reflect / adapt with evolution

Front 82

specialized cells in the nervous system that transform energy in the environment into neural impulses that can be interpreted by the brain

Back 82

sensory receptors

Front 83

the process of converting physical energy into neural impulses that can be interpreted by the brain

Back 83

sensory receptors

Front 84

the process of converting physical energy into neural impulses

Back 84

transduction

Front 85

the minimal amount of physical energy needed for an observer to notice a stimulus

Back 85

absolute threshold

Front 86

in signal detection theory, the subject's readiness to report detecting a signal when uncertain

Back 86

response bias

Front 87

the lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred

Back 87

difference threshold

Front 88

the smallest difference in intensity between two stimuli that a person can detect

Back 88

just noticeable difference

Front 89

the tendency of sensory systems to respond less to stimuli that continue without change

Back 89

sensory adaptation

Front 90

perceptual misinterpretations produced in the course of normal perceptual processes

Back 90

perceptual illusions

Front 91

the organization of perception in three dimensions

Back 91

depth perception

Front 92

visual input integrated from two eyes that provides perception of depth

Back 92

binocular cues

Front 93

visual input from a single eye alone that contributes to depth perception

Back 93

monocular cues

Front 94

neurons that receive information from both eyes

Back 94

binocular cells

Front 95

a monocular depth cue involving the relative movements of retinal images of objects; nearby objects appear to speed across the field of vision, whereas distant objects barely seem to move

Back 95

motion parallax

Front 96

the perception of movement in depth

Back 96

motion perception

Front 97

ganglion cells that are particularly sensitive to movement

Back 97

motion detectors

Front 98

the organization of changing sensations into percepts that are relatively stable in size, shape, and color

Back 98

perceptual constancy

Front 99

the tendency to perceive the color of objects as stable despite changing illumination

Back 99

color constancy

Front 100

the perception that an object's shape remains constant despite the changing shape of the retinal image as the object is viewed from varying perspectives

Back 100

shape constancy

Front 101

a perceptual illusion on which two lines of equal length appear different in size

Back 101

Muller-Lyer illusion

Front 102

the perception that the shape of objects remains unchanged in spite of the fact that different impressions are made on the retina each time the object is encountered

Back 102

size constancy

Front 103

the process of generating meaning from sensory experience

Back 103

perceptual interpretation

Front 104

a theory which states that sensory information intrinsically carries meaning

Back 104

direct perception

Front 105

a clear table with a checkerboard directly beneath it on one side and another checkerboard that appears to drop off like a cliff on the other; used especially with human infants in depth perception studies

Back 105

visual cliff

Front 106

the inability to sleep

Back 106

insomnia

Front 107

the period of sleep during which darting eye movements occur, autonomic activity increases, and patterns of brain activity resemble those observed in waking states

Back 107

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

Front 108

stages of sleep in which rapid eye movements are not present

Back 108

non-REM (NREM) sleep, stages 1-4

Front 109

stage 1 sleep

Back 109

theta waves, w/ muscle tone, w/o eye movement

Front 110

stage 2 sleep

Back 110

sleep spindles, k-complex, no more alpha waves

Front 111

stage 3 sleep

Back 111

delta waves appear, w/o muscle tone, slower breathing, lower temperature, muscles rest and rejuvenate

Front 112

stage 4 sleep

Back 112

delta waves > 50% of recorded activity, w/o muscle tone, slower breathing, lower temperature, muscles rest and rejuvenate

Front 113

what waves occur when you are awake?

Back 113

beta waves

Front 114

the obvious story line of a dream

Back 114

manifest content

Front 115

according to Freud's dream theory, the meaning that underlies the symbolism in a dream

Back 115

latent content

Front 116

the field that studies the way thought, feeling, and behavior develop through the life-span

Back 116

developmental psychology

Front 117

biologically based development

Back 117

maturation

Front 118

periods of special sensitivity to specific types of learning that shape the capacity for future development

Back 118

critical periods

Front 119

developmental periods during which environmental input is especially important, but not absolutely required, for future development in a domain

Back 119

sensitive periods

Front 120

relatively discrete steps through which everyone progresses in the same sequence

Back 120

stages

Front 121

predictable change sin interpersonal thought, feeling, and behavior

Back 121

social development

Front 122

enduring affectional ties that children form with their primary caregivers an that become the basis for later love relationships

Back 122

attachment

Front 123

the tendency of young animals of certain species to follow an animal to which they were exposed during a sensitive period early in their lives

Back 123

imprinting

Front 124

distress at separation from an attachment figure

Back 124

separation anxiety

Front 125

response to separation in which infants welcome the mother's return and seek closeness to her

Back 125

secure attachment style

Front 126

response to separation in which infants ignore the mother when she returns

Back 126

avoidant attachment style

Front 127

response to separation in which infants who are angry and rejecting simultaneously indicate a clear desire to be close to the mother

Back 127

ambivalent attachment style

Front 128

response to separation in which infants behave in contradictory ways, indicating helpless efforts to elicit soothing responses from the attachment figure

Back 128

disorganized attachment style

Front 129

patterns of mental representation, emotion, and proximity-seeking in adults related to childhood attachment patterns

Back 129

adult attachment

Front 130

what are the four attachment styles?

Back 130

secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized

Front 131

harmful environmental agents such as drugs, radiation, and viruses, that cause maternal illness, which can produce fetal abnormalities or death

Back 131

teratogens

Front 132

the stage in which individuals become capable of reproduction

Back 132

puberty

Front 133

the inability to hear high-frequency sound, that usually occurs with aging

Back 133

presbycusis

Front 134

a form of prejudice against old people comparable to racism and sexism

Back 134

ageism

Front 135

the capacity to associate sensations of an object from different senses or to math one's own actions to behaviors that are observed visually

Back 135

intermodal processing

Front 136

the inability to recall early childhood memories

Back 136

infantile amnesia

Front 137

the interpretation of actions or events in terms of one's present schemas

Back 137

assimilation

Front 138

integrated pattern of knowledge stored in memory that organizes information and guides the acquisition of new information

Back 138

schema

Front 139

in Piaget's theory, the modification of schemas to fit reality

Back 139

accomodation

Front 140

according to Piaget, a balancing of assimilation and accommodation to adapt to the world

Back 140

equilibration

Front 141

in Piaget's theory, a distinct underlying logic used by a child at a given time

Back 141

structure of thought

Front 142

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, from birth to about 18 months of age, with thinking primarily characterized by action

Back 142

sensorimotor stage

Front 143

Piaget's four stages of cognitive development

Back 143

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Front 144

in Piaget's theory, the recognition that objects exist in time and space independent of one's action on, or observation of them

Back 144

object permanence

Front 145

being thoroughly embedded in one's own point of view

Back 145

egocentric

Front 146

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, beginning roughly around age two and lasting until age five to seven, characterized by the emergence of symbolic thought

Back 146

preoperational stage

Front 147

in Piagetian theory, mental actions that the individual can use to manipulate, transform, and return an object of thought to its original state

Back 147

operations

Front 148

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, in which children are capable of mentally manipulating internal representations of concrete objects in ways that are reversible

Back 148

concrete operational stage

Front 149

recognition that basic properties of an object remain stable even tough superficial properties may change

Back 149

conservation

Front 150

Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, which begins at about age 12 to 15 and is characterized by the ability o manipulate abstract as well as concrete objects, events, and ideas mentally

Back 150

formal operational stage

Front 151

the process of executing mental processes with increasing efficiency, so that they require less and less attention

Back 151

automatization

Front 152

accumulated information stored in long-term memory

Back 152

knowledge base

Front 153

people's understanding of the way they perform cognitive tasks, such as remembering, learning, or solving problems

Back 153

metacognition

Front 154

theorists who attempt to wed a stagemodel of cognitive development with research on information processing and domain-specific knowldege

Back 154

neo-Piagetian theorists

Front 155

what do we process automatically?

Back 155

form perception, (figure ground, grouping, proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, closure), depth, (monocular depth cues, accommodation, interposition, relative size, relative height, relative motion, converging lines, texture gradient,), (binocular depth cues, retinal disparity, convergence)

Front 156

what are some examples of binocular depth cues?

Back 156

retinal disparity, convergence

Front 157

what re some examples of monocular depth cues?

Back 157

accommodation, interposition, relative size, relative height, relative motion, converging lines, texture gradient

Front 158

cyclical flow with peaks of alertness and drowsiness throughout a twenty four hour day (affected by neurotransmitters and light and dark)

Back 158

circadian rhythm

Front 159

why do we sleep?

Back 159

to heal, to process and organize information, to dream, to conserve energy, to avoid predators

Front 160

time frame for stage 1 sleep

Back 160

1-10 minutes after falling asleep

Front 161

time frame for stage 2 sleep

Back 161

10-30 minutes after falling asleep

Front 162

time frame for stage 3 sleep

Back 162

30-45 minutes after falling asleep

Front 163

time frame for stage 4 sleep

Back 163

45-80 minutes after falling asleep

Front 164

how long does an entire sleep cycle take?

Back 164

90 minutes

Front 165

during what stage of sleep does most dreaming occur?

Back 165

REM sleep

Front 166

what stages are considered delta sleep?

Back 166

stages 3 and 4

Front 167

what is atonia?

Back 167

sleep paralysis

Front 168

what three kinds of information do dreams reveal?

Back 168

thoughts, feelings, wishes

Front 169

symbols have different meanings for different people

Back 169

coding manual fallacy

Front 170

what do we look for when analyzing dreams?

Back 170

emotional content, dominant symbols, main themes, life issues the person is experiencing

Front 171

what is the most common attachment style?

Back 171

secure attachment style

Front 172

place a high value on obedience and respect for authority

Back 172

authoritarian

Front 173

impose minimal controls on their children

Back 173

permissive

Front 174

enforce standards, but encourage verbal give-and-take

Back 174

authoritative

Front 175

two stages of preconventional morality

Back 175

punishment and obedience, naive hedonism

Front 176

two stages of conventional morality

Back 176

gain approval, maintain law and order

Front 177

two stages of postconventional morality

Back 177

morality of individual rights, morality of conscience

Front 178

refers to the tendency to pay greater attention to novel stimuli than to familiar stimuli, longer fixation times occur with novel stimuli

Back 178

orienting reflex

Front 179

infants an be trained to suck a pacifier, sucking rate increases with novel stimuli and decreases to familiar stimuli

Back 179

sucking reflex

Front 180

direct interaction with the environment

Back 180

adaptation

Front 181

common errors of preoperational thought stage

Back 181

errors of conservation, egocentrism, and animism