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167 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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6 parts to scientific argument |
1. Problem identification
2. Question asking 3. Hypothesis development 4. Data collection 5. Analysis 6. Conclusion |
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Data collection
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Collect data throughout the scientific process to test the hypothesis or predictions in a controlled environment (3 steps)
1. Observation 2. Measurement 3. Organization |
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Experimentation
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Comparing a control group to an experimental group, both groups equally represent the population. The experimental group is different based on one variable
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Analysis
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Analyze the data and determine if it is reliable (consistent with past results) and whether or not is supports the hypothesis
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Conclusion |
It is the purpose of scientific process. Scientists produce models to represent the explanations supported by the data
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Hypothesis
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An explanation formulated to answer the questions being investigated. It has a statement that can be tested (3 steps)
1. Identify the problem 2. Ask questions 3. Formulate a hypothesis |
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Deductive reasoning |
A method whereby conclusions follow general principles
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Inductive reasoning
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A method of arriving at general principles from specific facts
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Anatomy
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The study of the STRUCTURE of the organs and body systems
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Physiology |
The study of the FUNCTION of the organs and body systems
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Atoms
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The smallest parts of elements that still retain all of the original properties of the element
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Molecule
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A chemical bonding of atoms that possesses its own characteristics independent of the atoms themselves
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Cells
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The basic unit of life (formed by the combination of specific molecules)
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Tissues
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Formed from the combination of cells in terms of function and type
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Organs
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Formed when two or more tissue types work together to perform a specific function
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Organ system
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When organs work together to perform a task
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Organism
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The highest level of organization
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Epithelial tissue
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Functions: provide covering, produce secretions
Exists in sheets and does not have own blood supply Classified by number of cell layers and cell shape |
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Simple epithelium
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Contains one layer of cells
Found in body structures where absorption, secretion, filtration occur |
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Stratified epithelium
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Has more than one layer of cells
Serves as protection Shapes: squamous, cuboidal, columnar |
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Connective tissue
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Found throughout the body and serves to connect different structures of the body
Types: bone, cartilage, adipose, blood vessel |
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Muscle tissue
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Dedicated to producing movement
Types: skeletal, smooth, cardiac |
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Skeletal muscle
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Supports voluntary movement
Connected to bones |
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Smooth muscle
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Involuntary control
Found in the walls of hollow organs such as intestines, blood vessels, bladder, uterus |
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Cardiac muscle
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Only found in the heart
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Nervous tissue
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Provides structure for the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
Myelin helps protect nervous tissue |
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Circulatory system
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Contains heart, blood vessels, and blood
Supports circulation and distribution of various substances (oxygen, hormones, nutrients) throughout the body |
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Digestive system
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Consists of all organs from mouth to angus
Absorption of nutrients takes place in small intestine Colon removes water from the waste Liver produces bile to break down fats Pancreas delivers enzymes to the small intestine that help in digestion |
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Endocrine system
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Controls body functions
Glands secrete hormones, regulate processes such as growth and metabolism |
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Integumentary system
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Protects internal tissues, waterproof the body, helps regulate body temp, serves as a barrier to pathogens
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Lymphatic system
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Supports the immune system by housing and transporting WBC's to and from lymph nodes. Also returns fluid that has leaked from the cardiovascular system back into the blood vessels
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Muscular system
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Consists of skeletal muscles, tendons that connect muscles to bones, and ligaments that attach bones together to form joints
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Nervous system
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Functions: provide sensory, motor, and integrative functions within the body
Sensory receptors detect stimuli that can occur both inside and outside the body. Conduction of nervous impulses along nerves is extremely fast, making it possible for immediate reflexive responses to protect body |
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Reproductive system
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Main purpose is to produce offspring. The reproductive organs also house hormones that encourage or suppress activities within the body
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Respiratory system
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Keeps the body's cells supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
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Skeletal system
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Provides support and protection. When used in conjunction with muscles it creates movement. Also serves as storage for minerals (calcium and phosphorus)
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Urinary system
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Helps maintain water and electrolyte balance within the body. It regulates the acid-base balance of blood and removes nitrogen containing wastes from body (by products of breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids)
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Anatomical position
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Standard position in which the body is facing forward, feet are parallel to each other, and the arms are at the sides with the palms facing forward
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Superior
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Toward the upper end of the body/body structure
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Inferior
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Toward the lower end of the body/body structure
(opposite=superior) |
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Anterior
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Toward the front of the body/body structure
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Posterior
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Toward the back of the body/body structure
(opposite=superior) |
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Medial
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Toward the middle of the body/body structure |
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Lateral
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Toward the outer sides od the body/body structure
(opposite=medial) |
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Intermediate
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In between medial and lateral
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Proximal
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Close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment
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Distal
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Away from the origin of the body part or point of attachment
(opposite=proximal) |
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Superficial
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Toward or at the body surface
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Deep
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Away from or below the body surface
(opposite=superficial) |
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Sagittal section
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Cut made along a longitudinal plane dividing the body into RIGHT and LEFT
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Midsagittal section
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Sagittal made down the median of the body
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Transverse (cross) section
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Cut made along a horizontal plane to divide the body into UPPER and LOWER regions
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Frontal (corona) section
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Cut made along a longitudinal plane that divides the body into FRONT and BACK
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Dorsal body cavity
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Contains the cranial cavity and spinal column |
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Ventral body cavity
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Contains all the structures within the chest and abdomen |
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Adaptation
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Receive, interpret, and respond to internal and external stimuli via the nervous system
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Circulation
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Transport oxygen and other nutrients to tissues via the cardiovascular system
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Elimination
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Remove metabolic wastes from the body via the renal system
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Locomotion
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Allow voluntary and involuntary movement of body via the musculoskeletal and neurological systems
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Nutrition
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Take in and break down nutrients to be used for metabolism via the digestive system
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Oxygenation
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Take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide via the resp. system
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Regulation
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Hormonal control of body functions via the endocrine system
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Self-duplication
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Production of off-spring via the reproductive system
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Ways in which organ systems interact
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1. Maintain boundaries
2. Responding to environmental changes 3. Moving 4. Ingestion and digestion 5. Reproducing 6. Growing 7. Excretion 8. Metabolizing |
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Heart
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Contacts and pumps blood throughout the body
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Veins
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Blood vessels that transport blood from the capillaries back to the heart
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Arteries
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Blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart to the capillaries
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Capillaries
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Tiny blood vessels that transport blood from arteries to veins within the body
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Blood flow through the heart
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Deoxygentated blood enters heart through superior and inferior vena cava -> right atrium-> tricuspid valve-> right ventricle-> pulmonary valve-> pulmonary artery and lungs (picks up oxygen)--> oxygenated blood carried back to heart by pulmonary veins into left atrium-> mitral valve-> left ventricle.
Contraction of left ventricle forces blood through the aortic valve-> aorta-> out to the body |
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Breathing
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Air inhaled through nose into trachea-> into right and left bronchial tubes-> travels to alveoli (permits exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide)-> oxygen transported to RBC's
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Inspiration
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Diaphragm contracts and pulls air into the lungs
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Expiration
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When the diaphragm relaxes carbon dioxide is forced out of the body
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Central nervous system
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Contains brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system
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Contains cranial and spinal nerves that extend beyond the CNS
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Autonomic nervous system
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Controls automatic body functions (heartbeat, digestion). Contains both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
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Sympathetic nerves
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Active when a person is excited or scared
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Parasympathetic nerves
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Active when a person is eating or at rest
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Ganglia
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Collections of nerve cell bodies
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Sensory-somatic nervous system
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Controls voluntary actions
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Dendrites
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Receive stimuli for the internal and external environment, bring it to neurons
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Neurons
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Specialized cells that make up the nervous system and transmit messages for interpretation
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Peristalsis
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Rhythmic contractions the propel food towards the colon and anus
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Digestion
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The mechanical and chemical breakdown of foods
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Enzymes
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Chemicals that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into nutrients that can be absorbed through the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream
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Salivary amylase
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enzyme from the parotid salivary glands that begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates
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Innate defenses
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non-specific
Occurs the same way every time, regardless of the type or number of pathogens present include second line non-specific defenses: fever, inflammation, phagocytosis |
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Adaptive defenses
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Specific
Third line of defense, includes humoral, or antibody-mediated, and cell-mediated responses |
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Phagocytosis
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Engulfing of pathogens by WBC's
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Chemotaxis
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A method by which the leukocytes respond to damaged body tissues
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Cytokines
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Chemical messengers that are released by damaged tissues
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Diapedesis
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The process of WBC's squeezing through capillary slits in response to cytokines
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Antibodies
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Produced that are specific for the invading antigen |
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Adaptive response
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Antibodies produced for invading antigen-> antigen binds to B cells-> then binds to T-helper cells-> activates the B cells to produce antibodies
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Vaccine
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Stimulates an actual infection by a pathogen, stimulating the body to produce antibodies for future protection
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Cell-mediated immunity
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T-cells are primarily responsible for recognizing nonself cells.
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T-cells
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Lymphocyte that trigger the action of other lymphocytes
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Crude birth rate
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The number of births per 1,000 people per year
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Crude death rate
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Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year
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Immigration
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The act of an individual moving into a region or country to live
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Emigration
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The act of an individual moving out of one region or country to live in another
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Taxonomy hierarchy
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Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species
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Binomial nomenclature
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Latin name of the genus and species is written in italics, the genus is capitalized and the species is not
Ex: Home sapiens |
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Natural selection
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Occurs when some individuals of a species are better able to survive in their environment and reproduce; than others
Aka: survival of the fittest |
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Genes
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Stretches of DNA on a chromosome that provide information for an organisms characteristics
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Alleles
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Genes in different forms
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Mutations
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Changes in the DNA that affect the way a gene functions
The changes are permanent Can be passed down from generation to generation |
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Adaptation
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Some individuals of species are better able to survive and adapt to the environment in which they live due to the mutations and combination of alleles
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Nucleic acids
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store and transmit hereditary information
Is a chain of nucleotides that consist of a pentose, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base |
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Phosphate group
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A molecule in the backbone of DNA and RNA that links the adjoining bases together
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Nitrogenous base
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A molecule found in DNA and RNA that encodes genetic information in cells
5 types: adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil, thymine (found in both RNA/DNA) Thymine is found in DNA Uracil is found in RNA |
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Transcription
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Cells copy the instructions in the DNA into RNA and send the messenger RNA to the ribosomes
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Translation
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Proteins are made by ribosomes from the information and sent out to the entire cell
(protein production) |
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Prokaryotic cells
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Contain a cell wall, cytoplasm, organelles, nucleoid, plasmids, ribosomes, flagella (in certain cases)
Ex: bacteria |
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Eukaryotic cells
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More complex and larger than prokaryotes
Plasma membrane envelops the cell and is semi-permeable |
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Cytoplasm
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Rich protein fluid with a gel-like consistency
Houses organelles |
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Nucleoide
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Condensed DNA of the cell
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Ribosomes
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Manufacture proteins for the cell from the RNA messages
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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Tubular transport network within the cell
Smooth: important for metabolic processes of the cell Rough: studded with ribosomes, responsible for moving proteins from one part of the cell to another; and for moving proteins outside of the cell |
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Golgi apparatus
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Involved in packaging and transport of proteins in the cell
Has multiple functions: refines proteins, sorts proteins and prepares them for transport, and works with the ER in protein movement and processing |
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Vesicles |
used to transport proteins or other substances in/out of the cell
3 types: vacuoles, lysosomes, perixosomes |
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Vacuole |
basic storage unit of the cell and can hold various compounds
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Lysosome |
contains digestive enzymes that are capable of disposing of cellular debris and worn cellular parts |
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Peroxisome |
functions to rid the body of toxic components (ex: hydrogen peroxide)
major sites for oxygen use and energy production
found in the liver because it is where toxins build up |
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Mitochondria |
"Powerhouses" of the cell
ATP produced here |
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Microtubules |
Cellular tracks that during mitosis form the mitotic spindle |
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Centrosomes |
Microtubule organizing centers that help to form and organize the miotic spindle during mitosis |
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Nucleus |
Control center of the entire cell because it contains the cells genetic material and directs all of the activities of the cell |
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Nucleolus |
small body within the nucleus
functions to produce ribosomes that get moved to the cytoplasm to make cell proteins |
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Chlorplasts |
organelles that contain chlorphyll
found in plants |
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Chromosomes |
contain sections called genes, which contain information that specifies the production of proteins |
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Genes |
send messages within the cell and to other cells in the form of a code
contain double stranded molecules of DNA |
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Protein |
a chain of amino acids |
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Embryo |
an animal or a plant in the early stages of development after fertilization |
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Zygote |
a fertilized egg begins dividing and becomes a mass of cells |
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Mitosis |
the process of cell duplication in which two daughter cells receive exactly the same nuclear material as the original cell |
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Prophase |
The spindle fibers form and the centrioles moves to opposite sides of the cell. The nuclear membrane disappears |
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Metaphase |
The chromosomes align midway along the spindle fibers |
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Anaphase |
The chromosomes begin to seperate from their daughters. Cytokinesis begins |
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Telophase |
Identical sets of chromosomes are at opposite end of the cell. Spindle fibers disappear, nuclear membranes reappear, and cytokinesis completes |
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Meiosis |
the purpose is to halve the number of chromosomes |
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Diploid cells |
cells that contain two sets of chromosomes |
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Haploid cells |
cells that contain a single set of chromosomes |
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Prophase I |
homologous chromosomes condense and link in the process-tetrads. This allows crossing over or recombination to occur |
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Metaphase I |
homologous chromosomes seperate, but the sister chromatids stay together |
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Anaphase I |
homologous chromosomes seperate, but the sister chromatids stay together |
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Telophase I |
cytokensis has occured and two haploid daughter cells are the result |
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Prophase II |
a brief stage in which spindle fibers begin to reappear and centrioles move to opposite poles |
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Metaphase II |
sister chromatids align at a new metaphase plate |
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Anaphase II |
sister chromatids seperate again |
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Telophase II |
four haploid cells result after cytokinesis |
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Photosynthesis |
process carried out by green plants, green algae, and certain bacteria, in which the energy from the sunlight is trapped |
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Autotroph |
an organism that is able to produce its own food |
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Chemical equation for photosynthesis |
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
carbon dioxide + water + sunlight --> glucose + oxygen |
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Chemical equation for cellular respiration |
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6H2O + energy
glucose + carbon dioxide --> water + energy |
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Heterotrophs |
organisms that cannot produce their own food |
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Cellular respiration |
glucose broken by glycolysis, which transfers of the energy in glucose to ATP |
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Genome |
a complete set of DNA for an individual that cotains all of the genes |
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Mutagen |
a substance that induces mutations |
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Germ cells |
reproductive cells that give rise to sperm and ovum |
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Homozygous |
when both parents give the offspring the same allele |
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Heterozygous |
when each parent gives the offspring a different allele for a particular trait |
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Punnett square |
a graphical way to show all the possible combinations of alleles given the two parents' genotypes |
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Electromagnetic waves |
waves of radiation that are characterized by electric and magnetic fields
shortest to longest: (gamma rays, x-ray, UV ray, visible, infrared, microwave, radio wave) |
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Law of Conservation of Energy |
energy is not lost, but rather transfered back and forth between KE and PE |
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Protons |
positively charged subatomic particles the nucleus of an atom |
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Neutrons |
are neutral subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom |
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Electrons |
are negatively charged subatomic particles in various energy levels |
