Mccurdy Flash-Cards For Eppp Exam; Behavioral Psychology, Learning Theory, Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions, Memory & Forgetting

Front 1

Explains how certain stimuli acquire the capacity to automatically elicit a particular response.

Back 1

Classical conditioning

Front 2

Explains why a person feels anxious every time he has to drive over a bridge or why someone feels happy whenever she hears a particular son.

Back 2

Classical conditioning

Front 3

Classical conditioning was first described over a century ago by the Russian physiologist ____.

Back 3

Ivan Pavlov

Front 4

Pavlov's classical conditioning was used by _____________to explain how humans acquire phobic reactions to objects and events.

Back 4

John Watson

Front 5

When Pavlov discovered that animals salivate without meat in the room he originally called it ____ .

Back 5

"psychic secretion"

Front 6

At first Pavlov described the "psychic secretions" as the result of _______.

Back 6

mental activity

Front 7

Pavlov eventually rejected the subjective interpretation of "psychic secretion" and redefined the phenomenon as a ________.

Back 7

"conditioned reflex"

Front 8

Pavlov paired presentation of a tone or other ___________ that did not produce salivation with the presentation of meat powder that naturally elicited salivation.

Back 8

neutral stimulus

Front 9

After several pairings, presentation of the neutral stimulus alone produced a __________.

Back 9

salivation response

Front 10

Pavlov called the stimulus that naturally elicited salivation the _______.

Back 10

unconditioned stimulus

Front 11

US

Back 11

unconditioned stimulus

Front 12

Salivation the meat.

Back 12

unconditioned response

Front 13

UR

Back 13

unconditioned response

Front 14

Neutral stimulus that will produce salivation.

Back 14

conditioned stimulus

Front 15

Salivation to a conditioned stimulus.

Back 15

conditioned response

Front 16

CS

Back 16

conditioned stimulus

Front 17

CR

Back 17

conditioned response

Front 18

Has been used to explain a variety of human responses including emotional reactions, attitudes, drug addiction, allergies, food and sexual preferences and aversions, and psychosomatic disorders.

Back 18

Classical conditioning

Front 19

The temporal relationship between the CS and US, the number of conditioning trials, and pre-exposure to the CS or US can all impact the ___________.

Back 19

effectiveness of Classical Conditioning

Front 20

Pavlov found that the order and timing of the presentation of the CS and US were important determinants of the success of classical conditioning.

Back 20

Temporal Relationship Between the CS and US.

Front 21

Is a type of forward conditioning and involves presenting the CS so that it precedes and overlaps presentation of the US.

Back 21

Delay conditioning

Front 22

When using Delay conditioning the optimal time interval between the onset of the CS and the US depends on the nature of the ________.

Back 22

target response

Front 23

Generally in Delay conditioning the optimal time interval between and the onset of the CS and US is about ______.

Back 23

0.5 seconds

Front 24

The most efficient procedure for establishing a conditioned response.

Back 24

Delay conditioning

Front 25

Another type of forward conditioning that entails presenting and terminating the CS prior to presenting the US.

Back 25

Trace conditioning

Front 26

Trace conditioning produces a weaker CR than does _________.

Back 26

Delay conditioning

Front 27

Involves presenting and withdrawing the CS and US at the same time.

Back 27

Simultaneous conditioning

Front 28

Simultaneous conditioning is less effective than both _______.

Back 28

Trace conditioning and Delay conditioning

Front 29

Presenting the US prior to the CS.

Back 29

Backward conditioning

Front 30

Does not usually produce a conditioned response; and its ineffectiveness implies that it's the contingency of stimuli (rather than their contiguity) that underlies classical conditioning.

Back 30

Backward conditioning

Front 31

contiguity =

Back 31

adjoining

Front 32

Occurs when the presentation of the US seems to depend on presentation of the CS.

Back 32

Classical conditioning

Front 33

The greater the number of conditioning trials, the stronger and more persistent the ____.

Back 33

Conditioned response

Front 34

Regardless of the number of trials, the CR is usually weaker in intensity and magnitude than the _____.

Back 34

unconditioned response

Front 35

Once the CS-CR connection has been established. If the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the CS-CR connection eventually ______.

Back 35

decays

Front 36

The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response as the result of repeated presentation of the CS alone is referred to as ____________.

Back 36

classical extinction

Front 37

To avoid extinction of classically-conditioned response, occasional "________________," in which the CS is again paired with the US, are required.

Back 37

refresher trials

Front 38

Following extinction, fewer trials are need to re-establish a _________________ than were needed to establish it initially.

Back 38

CS-CR relationship

Front 39

A conditioned response rarely extinguishes all at _______.

Back 39

once

Front 40

On the day following the apparent extinction of a CR, the dogs in Pavlov's study often displayed a weak CR when presented with the CS alone.

Back 40

spontaneous recovery

Front 41

Demonstrated that a conditioned response is suppressed rather than eliminated by extinction trials.

Back 41

spontaneous recovery

Front 42

Spontaneous recovery demonstrated that learning is never lost but is merely __________.

Back 42

inhibited

Front 43

When an experimental subject responds with a conditioned response not only to the CS but also to stimuli that are similar to the CS.

Back 43

stimulus generalization

Front 44

In stimulus generalization the more similar the stimuli is to the CS the greater the magnitude of the _____.

Back 44

conditioned response

Front 45

Stimulus generalization is not confined to a single ________.

Back 45

sense modality

Front 46

Humans conditioned to respond to a bell might also respond to a picture of a bell or the spoken word bell.

Back 46

stimulus generalization

Front 47

The opposite of stimulus generalization.

Back 47

stimulus discrimination

Front 48

The ability to discriminate between the CS and similar stimuli and respond only to the CS with a CR.

Back 48

stimulus discrimination

Front 49

Is established through discrimination training, which involves selective reinforcement and extinction.

Back 49

stimulus discrimination

Front 50

Studies on stimulus discrimination led to Pavlov's discovery that very difficult discriminations can produce _________.

Back 50

experimental neurosis

Front 51

Pavlov attributed the experimental neurosis that developed during very difficult discrimination to a conflict between _________.

Back 51

cortical excitation and inhibition

Front 52

When a second neutral stimulus was repeatedly paired with a previously conditioned stimulus, the second neutral stimulus eventually produces a conditioned response.

Back 52

Higher-Order conditioning

Front 53

Used by Pavlov to explain how conditioned responses are acquired in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus.

Back 53

Higher-Order conditioning

Front 54

When higher-order conditioning involves a second neutral stimulus it is also called _______.

Back 54

second-order conditioning

Front 55

When higher-order conditioning entails a third neutral stimulus it is also called _______.

Back 55

third-order conditioning

Front 56

The presence of the CS blocks an association between a second neutral stimulus and the US when the CS and the second neutral stimulus are presented together.

Back 56

blocking

Front 57

A tone has already been paired with electric shock so that the presentation of the tone alone produces a fear reaction and that the tone is then repeatedly presented simultaneously with a flashing light prior to presenting the shock. In this situation, presentation of the flashing light alone will not elicit a fear reaction.

Back 57

blocking

Front 58

According to Rescore and Wagner blocking occurs because the conditioned stimulus already predicts the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus. As a result the second neutral stimulus only provides ____________ and an association between the second neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is not made.

Back 58

redundant information

Front 59

Occurs when two neutral stimuli (rather than a CS and a new stimulus) are repeatedly presented together prior to the US. Subsequently, presentation of the two stimuli together produces a CR, but when the two stimuli are presented separately, only one produces the CR.

Back 59

Overshadowing

Front 60

Blocking and Overshadowing are sometimes ____.

Back 60

confused

Front 61

It is believed to occur because one of the stimuli is more salient to the subject and, as a result, an association is established only between the more salient stimulus and the US.

Back 61

Overshadowing

Front 62

Father of American Behaviorism.

Back 62

John Watson

Front 63

Rejected his contemporaries' use of introspection as the primary method of psychology and argued that the only appropriate domain for psychologists is the study of observable, measurable behaviors.

Back 63

John Watson

Front 64

Pavlov's classical conditioning model provided Watson with an effective system for analyzing observable behaviors, and he argued that all learning is the result of ___________.

Back 64

Classical conditioning

Front 65

Is probably best know for his use of classical conditioning to establish a phobia in an 11-month old boy named Albert.

Back 65

John Watson

Front 66

Help individuals to "unlearn" previously acquired connections between specific stimuli and undesirable behaviors by weakening those connections or replacing the undesirable behavior with a more appropriate one.

Back 66

Interventions

Front 67

Include counterconditioning, aversive counterconditioning, and classical extinction.

Back 67

Interventions based on classical conditioning

Front 68

Eliminate a maladaptive behavior by pairing a stimulus (CS) associated with that behavior with a stimulus (US) that naturally elicits incompatible behavior so that the maladaptive behavior is replaced by the incompatible behavior.

Back 68

Counterconditioning

Front 69

This intervention strategy underlies Wolpe's technique of ______________, which he believed could be used to weaken and eliminate anxiety reactions.

Back 69

reciprocal inhibition

Front 70

Identified a number of incompatible responses that could be used to eliminate anxiety including relaxation, assertiveness, and sexual arousal.

Back 70

Wolpe

Front 71

Originally developed by Wolpe as an application of reciprocal inhibition for eliminating anxiety responses.

Back 71

Systematic desensitization

Front 72

Hierarchically-arranged anxiety-evoking events are paired with relaxation to eliminate the anxiety.

Back 72

Systematic desensitization

Front 73

Relaxation Training, Construction of an Anxiety Hierarchy, Desensitization in Imagination, & Vivo Desensitization.

Back 73

Four stages to the systematic desensitization process

Front 74

Therapist teaches the client to use a technique that produces a state of relaxation.

Back 74

Relaxation Training

Front 75

A commonly used technique of relaxation training that involves systematically tensing and relaxing all of the body's major muscle groups.

Back 75

Progressive relaxation

Front 76

Alternatively, the client may imagine a relaxing scene such as lying on a beach on a warm, sunny day.

Back 76

Progressive relaxation

Front 77

Consists of events related to the target behavior that are ordered on the basis of the amount of anxiety they evoke.

Back 77

Anxiety Hierarchy

Front 78

Used to ensure that hierarchy items represent a full range of anxiety levels and are equidistant in terms of the amount of anxiety they elicit.

Back 78

Subjective Units of Distress Scale

Front 79

SUDS

Back 79

Subjective Units of Distress Scale

Front 80

Involves having the client rate each event on a scale from 0 (complete relaxation) to 100 (highest level of anxiety the client can imagine). Events are then selected on the basis of the client's ratings so that the hierarchy contains about 10 to 15 items.

Back 80

I am not sure if this definition refers to the Subjective Units of Distress Scale or just the idea of Construction of an Anxiety Hierarchy

Front 81

Relaxation is paired with presentation of items in the anxiety hierarchy beginning with the least anxiety-evoking item.

Back 81

Desensitization in Imagination

Front 82

The therapist instructs the client to relax using the technique the client learned in the first stage of treatment; and once the client is relaxed, the therapist instructs him or her to imagine the appropriate anxiety hierarchy item. The client signals the therapist whenever he or she feels anxious, and the therapist helps the client re-establish a state of relaxation using the relaxation technique. When the client is able to imagine an item without experiencing anxiety, the next item in the hierarchy is presented. This process is repeated until the client is able to imagine the most anxiety-arousing item without experiencing anxiety.

Back 82

Desensitization in Imagination

Front 83

After the client has been desensitized to about 75 to 85% of the anxiety hierarchy items, he/she begins to confront anxiety-arousing situations in ________.

Back 83

vivo if it's feasible to do so

Front 84

Is highly structured and involves facing in "real life" only those situations that correspond to hierarchy items that have been successfully desensitized in imagination.

Back 84

In Vivo Desensitization

Front 85

Several investigators have used the ___________ to identity the mechanisms responsible for the benefits of systematic desensitization.

Back 85

dismantling strategy

Front 86

This strategy involves comparing effects of the various components of a treatment by administering different components to different groups of participants.

Back 86

dismantling strategy

Front 87

The results of these studies have shown that training in an incompatible response and gradual exposure to anxiety-evoking events are not the essential components of systematic desensitization (although they may have a facilitating effect) and that extinction, ore repeated exposure to the CS without the US, is the primary factor responsible for the effects.

Back 87

dismantling strategy studies of the benefits of systematic desensitization

Front 88

Has also been found useful for treating sexual disorders that are related to performance anxiety.

Back 88

Counterconditioning

Front 89

Involves pairing situations that evoke performance anxiety with pleasurable physical sensations and relaxation.

Back 89

Masters and Johnson's (1970) sensate focus

Front 90

Research has found that the sex therapy is most effective for treating _______.

Back 90

premature ejaculation and vaginismus

Front 91

For premature ejaculation a key component of treatment is the ________.

Back 91

"squeeze technique"

Front 92

for vaginismus the optimal treatment is a combination of ______________.

Back 92

relaxation and progressive dilators

Front 93

The maladaptive behavior or a stimulus associated with it (CS) is paired with a stimulus (US) that naturally evokes pain or other unpleasant response.

Back 93

Aversive Counterconditioning

Front 94

As a result of THIS, the maladaptive behavior and stimuli related to it are avoided because they elicit an undesirable response (CR).

Back 94

Aversive Counterconditioning

Front 95

Overt Sensitization

Back 95

In Vivo Aversion Therapy

Front 96

Is used to treat drug and alcohol addictions, paraphilias, and self-injurious behavior.

Back 96

In Vivo Aversion Therapy

Front 97

When using this technique the target behavior is paired with an aversive stimulus such as electric shock, noxious odor, or emetic (nausea-inducing) drug.

Back 97

In Vivo Aversion Therapy

Front 98

Aversion therapy has been found to be moderately effective initially for some patients and some problems (especially cigarette smoking), but it's associated with high ________________.

Back 98

relapse rates and limited generalizability

Front 99

Aversion therapy is most effective when the aversive stimulus or its consequence is similar to the _______.

Back 99

target behavior

Front 100

Aversion therapy is also more effective when it's supplemented by __________.

Back 100

"booster sessions"

Front 101

Aversion therapy is more effective when administered in conjunction with ______.

Back 101

other treatments

Front 102

The client imagines engaging in the maladaptive behavior and then imagines (rather than actually confronts) an aversive stimulus.

Back 102

Covert Sensitization

Front 103

Proposes that the development of a phobic response is the result of both classical and operant conditioning.

Back 103

The Two-factor theory of learning

Front 104

A person develops an anxiety reaction to a neutral stimulus (CS) when it's paired with a stimulus (US) that naturally elicits anxiety or other aversive response (classical conditioning). The person then avoids the CS because doing so enables him or her to avoid anxiety (negative reinforcement).

Back 104

The Two-factor theory of learning

Front 105

Repeatedly exposing the client to the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus while inhibiting his or her usual avoidance response in order to extinguish the client's conditioned response.

Back 105

Interventions based on Classical Extinction

Front 106

The client is exposed in "real life" to anxiety-arousing stimuli for a prolonged period of time and is prohibited from making his/er usual avoidance or other anxiety-reducing response.

Back 106

In vivo exposure with response prevention

Front 107

Exposing a client with Obsessive-Compulsive disorder to obsessional cues while prohibiting the client from engaging in his/her usual rituals.

Back 107

In vivo exposure with response prevention

Front 108

Involves exposure to the most anxiety- or fear -arousing stimuli for a prolonged period of time.

Back 108

Flooding

Front 109

Begins with exposure to situations that produce minimal anxiety and then gradually progresses to situations that evoke increasingly more intense anxiety.

Back 109

Graduated exposure

Front 110

Is helpful for reducing the fear of avoidance that may be caused by initial exposure to high-anxiety arousing situations.

Back 110

Graduated exposure

Front 111

Exposure to the distressing stimulus and response prevention are both essential to ________.

Back 111

treatment

Front 112

Prolonged continuous (massed) exposure to the anxiety-arousing stimulus is usually more effective that ______________.

Back 112

several brief exposures

Front 113

There is some evidence that exposure of short duration can actually increase sensitivity to ____________.

Back 113

feared stimuli

Front 114

Simultaneous use of a tranquilizer, which lowers anxiety, can actually enhance effectiveness of ______.

Back 114

exposure

Front 115

In some situations, _________ exposure is as effective as therapist directed exposure.

Back 115

self-directed

Front 116

Group exposure can be as effective as _____.

Back 116

individual treatment

Front 117

Has been found to be an effective approach for Agoraphobia and OCD.

Back 117

Partner-assisted exposure

Front 118

It involves use of strategies that are designed to evoke the feared bodily cues that are associated with fear and anxiety reactions (e.g., spinning in a chair, breathing into a paper bag, cardiovascular exercise).

Back 118

interceptive exposure

Front 119

Has been found effective for reducing anxiety associated with panic attacks, PTSD, and other anxiety-related disorders.

Back 119

interceptive exposure

Front 120

Like in vivo exposure with response prevention is based on the assumption that certain events (conditioned stimuli) are consistently avoided to reduce anxiety and that prolonged exposure to those events without the unconditioned stimulus will produce extinction of the anxiety response.

Back 120

Implosive Therapy

Front 121

Is conducted in imagination and involves presenting the feared stimulus vividly enough so as to arouse high levels of anxiety.

Back 121

Implosive Therapy

Front 122

Stampfl, the developer of this technique, believed that avoidance behaviors are learned during childhood and represent conflicts related to sexual or aggressive impulses.

Back 122

Implosive Therapy

Front 123

The images used during THIS therapy are embellished with psychodynamic themes.

Back 123

Implosive Therapy

Front 124

Originally was developed as an intervention for PTSD but is now also used to treat a variety of other disorders including panic attacks, phobias, depression, and substance abuse.

Back 124

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

Front 125

EMDR

Back 125

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

Front 126

It's based on the assumption that exposure to a trauma can block a neurophysiological adaptive information-processing mechanism.

Back 126

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

Front 127

It combines rapid lateral eye movements - which are believed to trigger this mechanism - with exposure and other techniques drawn from cognitive, behavioral, and psychodynamic approaches.

Back 127

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

Front 128

EMDR has been found to be an effective treatment for PTSD, but an ongoing controversy is whether its beneficial effects actually depend on ______.

Back 128

eye movements

Front 129

Davidson and Parker conclude that "eye movements are unnecessary and that EMDR may be viewed as an __________.

Back 129

imaginal exposure technique

Front 130

Identifies the factors responsible for the acquisition and maintenance of complex behaviors.

Back 130

Operant Conditioning

Front 131

The basic principals of operant conditioning were first described by ___________.

Back 131

Edward Thorndike

Front 132

The basic principals of operant conditioning were first described by Edward Thorndike and were subsequently expanded upon by ___________.

Back 132

B.F. Skinner

Front 133

Thorndike believed that the study of learning in lower animals would reveal important information about ______.

Back 133

human learning

Front 134

From his study with cats Thorndike concluded that learning is not due to mental events, or thinking about a problem, but, instead, to _____________.

Back 134

connectionism

Front 135

The connections that develop between responses and stimuli as the result of trial-and-error.

Back 135

connectionism

Front 136

Because the behaviors he studied were instrumental in helping the animals achieve a goal, Thorndike referred to this phenomenon as ______.

Back 136

instrumental learning

Front 137

According to Thorndike's original version of this law, any response that is followed by "a satisfying state of affairs" is likely to be repeated, while any act that results in an "annoying state of affairs" is less likely to recur.

Back 137

law of effect

Front 138

Thorndike later eliminated the second part of his law of effect, based on subsequent research which suggested that, while positive consequences increase behavior, negative ones often have ____.

Back 138

little effect

Front 139

Skinner believed that most complex behaviors are voluntarily emitted or not emitted as the result of the way they "__________" on the environment.

Back 139

operate

Front 140

The ways actions "operate" on the environment (i.e., ________________)

Back 140

as the result of the consequences that follow them

Front 141

Learning behaviors because of the consequences that follow them.

Back 141

Operant Conditioning

Front 142

According to Skinner environments provide organisms with a variety of positive and negative consequences that cause them to either display or withhold the behaviors that ___________.

Back 142

preceded them

Front 143

Skinner referred to to the consequences of behavior as ___________.

Back 143

reinforcements or punishment

Front 144

Skinner used the terms "positive" and "negative" not as synonyms for good and bad or pleasant and unpleasant. Instead positive refers to the application of a stimulus , while negative means _____________.

Back 144

withholding or removing a stimulus

Front 145

Stimulus applied behavior increases. Operant conditioning.

Back 145

Positive Reinforcement

Front 146

Stimulus removed behavior increases. Operant Conditioning.

Back 146

Negative Reinforcement

Front 147

Stimulus applied behavior decreases. Operant conditioning

Back 147

Positive Punishment

Front 148

Stimulus removed behavior decreases Operant conditioning.

Back 148

Negative Punishment

Front 149

By definition _____________increases the behavior it follows.

Back 149

reinforcement

Front 150

Performance of a behavior increases as the result of the application of a stimulus.

Back 150

positive reinforcement

Front 151

A behavior increases as the result of the withdrawal or termination of a stimulus following the behavior.

Back 151

Negative Reinforcement

Front 152

Like reinforcement punishment can be either _________.

Back 152

positive or negative

Front 153

Unlike reinforcement punishment ________the behavior it follows.

Back 153

decreases

Front 154

When the application of a stimulus following a response decreases the behavior.

Back 154

Positive Punishment

Front 155

When to removal or termination of a stimulus following a behavior decreases that behavior.

Back 155

Negative Punishment

Front 156

"Operant Chamber" for bar pressing or key-pecking by rats and pigeons.

Back 156

"Skinner Box"

Front 157

Skinner evaluated the effectiveness of operant conditioning by measuring ___________.

Back 157

operant strength

Front 158

The rate of determining (a) the rate of responding during acquisition trials and/or (b) the total number of responses made during extinction trials.

Back 158

operant strength

Front 159

The period when no reinforcement is provided.

Back 159

extinction trials

Front 160

Positive means _____.

Back 160

apply

Front 161

Negative means _____.

Back 161

withdraw

Front 162

If the target behavior is more or less likely to occur will determine if that behavior is being ______.

Back 162

reinforced or punished

Front 163

If the stimulus following the behavior is being applied or withdrawn will indicate if the reinforcement or the punishment is ________.

Back 163

positive or negative

Front 164

Occurs when reinforcement is consistently withheld from a previously reinforced behavior to decrease or eliminate that behavior.

Back 164

Operant extinction

Front 165

Experiments on operant conditioning have demonstrated that withdrawal of a reinforcer does not usually cause immediate ___________.

Back 165

cessation of the response

Front 166

When reinforcement is removed the response disappears gradually after an initial phase in which responding is more ___________.

Back 166

variable and forceful

Front 167

The temporary increase in responding during extinction trials.

Back 167

extinction (response) burst

Front 168

When a subject has been reinforced for two different behaviors and reinforcement for one behavior is withdrawn in order to extinguish it, the other behavior is likely to increase.

Back 168

behavioral contrast

Front 169

Reinforcers that are inherently desirable and do not depend on experience to acquire their reinforcing value.

Back 169

Primary reinforcers

Front 170

Unconditional reinforcers.

Back 170

Primary reinforcers

Front 171

Reinforcers that acquire their value only through repeated association with primary reinforcers.

Back 171

Secondary reinforcers

Front 172

Tokens, applause, and gold stars are all _____.

Back 172

Secondary reinforcers

Front 173

When a secondary reinforcer is paired with several different primary primary reinforcers.

Back 173

generalized secondary reinforcer

Front 174

The effectiveness of a reinforcer is impacted by the schedule on which it is __________.

Back 174

delivered

Front 175

The rate of acquisition of a behavior is fastest when the behavior is reinforced on a _________.

Back 175

continuous schedule

Front 176

Reinforcement is presented after each response.

Back 176

continuous schedule

Front 177

Satiation and rate of extinction are also high for a _____________, once an operant behavior has been acquired.

Back 177

continuous schedule

Front 178

Once adequate operant strength has been achieved an operant behavior has been ______.

Back 178

acquired

Front 179

The best way to maintain an operant behavior once it has been acquired is to switch to an _________.

Back 179

intermittent schedule

Front 180

Reinforcement is is delivered after a fixed period of time regardless of the number of responses made.

Back 180

Fixed Interval schedule

Front 181

Tend to produce low rates of responding since the number or responses in unrelated to the delivery of reinforcement.

Back 181

Fixed Interval schedule

Front 182

Subjects typically stop responding after a reinforcer is delivered and then begin responding toward the end of the reinforcement interval, which produces a "scallop" in the cumulative recording.

Back 182

Fixed Interval schedule

Front 183

In a work environment, an fixed interval schedule (hourly or weekly wage) tends to produce _____________.

Back 183

minimal levels of work

Front 184

The interval of time between delivery of reinforcers varies in an unpredictable manner from interval to interval.

Back 184

Variable Interval schedule

Front 185

In interval schedules the response must be made ________.

Back 185

at least one time during an interval

Front 186

Produces a steady but relatively low rate of responses.

Back 186

Variable Interval schedule

Front 187

Giving a specific number of quizzes during a semester but the time between the quizzes varies.

Back 187

Variable Interval schedule

Front 188

A reinforcer is delivered each time the subject makes a specific number of responses.

Back 188

Fixed Ratio schedule

Front 189

Produces a relatively high, steady rate of responding, usually with a brief pause following delivery of the reinforcer.

Back 189

Fixed Ratio schedule

Front 190

Piecework, in which workers receive payment following completion of a specific number of units.

Back 190

Fixed Ratio schedule

Front 191

Reinforcers are provided after a variable number of responses.

Back 191

Variable Ratio schedule

Front 192

Because the relationship between responding and reinforcing is unpredictable, it produces the highest rate of responding as well as responses that are most resistant to extinction.

Back 192

Variable Ratio schedule

Front 193

Gamblers playing slot machines, and wrestlers throwing headlocks are responding to a _____.

Back 193

Variable Ratio schedule

Front 194

Providing two or more simultaneous and independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response.

Back 194

concurrent schedules of reinforcement

Front 195

VI

Back 195

Variable Interval schedule

Front 196

FI

Back 196

Fixed Interval schedule

Front 197

FR

Back 197

Fixed Ratio schedule

Front 198

VR

Back 198

Variable Ratio schedule

Front 199

When there are concurrent schedules of reinforcement, the correspondence between the two or more alternatives and the frequency of reinforcement for responding is predicted by the ______.

Back 199

matching law

Front 200

If there are concurrent schedules of reinforcement the subjects responses will correspond to the effectiveness of the different schedules of reinforcement.

Back 200

matching law

Front 201

Accidental, noncontingent reinforcement can lead to _________.

Back 201

superstitious behavior

Front 202

Whether or not a response will be reinforced may be signaled by cues in the environment.

Back 202

Stimulus control

Front 203

Reinforcing a pigeon for pecking a key when a green light is on but not when a red light is on.

Back 203

Stimulus control

Front 204

The factor that must be in place (e.g. a green light on) for the behavior will be reinforced.

Back 204

Positive Discriminative stimulus

Front 205

A factor that when in place determines that the behavior will not be reinforced (e.g. a red light on).

Back 205

Negative discriminative stimulus

Front 206

It signals that reinforcement will occur as the consequence of a given response.

Back 206

Positive Discriminative stimulus

Front 207

It signals that the response will not be reinforced.

Back 207

Negative discriminative stimulus

Front 208

S D

Back 208

Positive Discriminative stimulus

Front 209

S-delta stimulus

Back 209

Negative discriminative stimulus

Front 210

S-

Back 210

Negative discriminative stimulus

Front 211

When the occurrence of a behavior is affected by the presence of discriminative stimuli, the behavior is said to be under ________.

Back 211

Stimulus control

Front 212

Stimulus control is also referred to as ________.

Back 212

stimulus discrimination

Front 213

Stimulus control is also referred to as stimulus discrimination as is another example of ______.

Back 213

two-factor learning

Front 214

In Stimulus control because learning the response is the result of operant conditioning and stimulus discrimination is the result of classical conditioning is _______.

Back 214

two-factor learning

Front 215

The reason a baby will whine in the presence of his dad who picks him up when he whines and not in the presence of his mom who will not pick him up when he whines.

Back 215

Stimulus control

Front 216

As in classical conditioning, occurs in operant conditioning when similar stimuli elicit the same response.

Back 216

stimulus generalization

Front 217

In operant conditioning, the stimuli that evoke the response are ____________.

Back 217

Positive Discriminative stimuli

Front 218

If a pigeon learns to pecking a key in the presence of a green light results in reinforcement and then also pecks the key when a blue light is on.

Back 218

stimulus generalization

Front 219

Often, reinforcement of a response not only increases the occurrence of that specific response but also the frequency of similar responses.

Back 219

Response generalization

Front 220

A baby that is reinforced for calling his father "dada" may also be more likely to say "baba," "mama," and "gaga" in the presence of his father.

Back 220

Response generalization

Front 221

Behaviors that are maintained by negative reinforcement.

Back 221

Escape and avoidance behaviors

Front 222

Behavior that results from escape conditioning.

Back 222

Escape behavior

Front 223

Behavior that increases because it's performance allows the organism to escape a negative reinforcer.

Back 223

Escape conditioning

Front 224

An avoidance response is the result of two factor learning in __________.

Back 224

avoidance conditioning

Front 225

The onset of the negative reinforcer is preceded by a cue (positive discriminative stimulus) that signals that the negative reinforcer is about to be applied.

Back 225

avoidance conditioning

Front 226

The organism learns that if it performs the target behavior in the presence of the cue, it can avoid the negative reinforcer all together.

Back 226

avoidance conditioning

Front 227

Exam questions might require you to identify the intermittent schedule that's associated with the greatest resistance to _________.

Back 227

extinction

Front 228

Identifying an example of avoidance conditioning might also be an _______.

Back 228

exam question

Front 229

Involve increasing a desirable behavior using positive reinforcement or decreasing an undesirable behavior with punishment or extinction.

Back 229

interventions based on operant conditioning.

Front 230

While positive and negative reinforcement are both useful for increasing the frequency of a behavior, most behavioral interventions rely on ___________.

Back 230

positive reinforcement

Front 231

The reinforcer should be available only when the target behavior has been performed.

Back 231

contingency

Front 232

To maximize the benefits of positive reinforcement, the reinforcer should be delivered immediately after the target behavior.

Back 232

immediacy

Front 233

Immediacy is particularly important when reinforcement is being used to establish a _______.

Back 233

new behavior

Front 234

Generally, the establishment of a new behavior is most rapid when reinforcement is applied on a ________.

Back 234

continuous schedule

Front 235

Maintenance of the behavior (resistance to extinction) is maximized when the behavior is reinforced on an ___________.

Back 235

intermittent schedule

Front 236

The best procedure is to begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement and then change to an intermittent schedule once the behavior is ________.

Back 236

well-established

Front 237

The process of reducing the proportion of reinforcements.

Back 237

thinning

Front 238

Up to a point the greater the amount of positive reinforcement, the greater it's ___________.

Back 238

effectiveness

Front 239

Past a certain point the reinforcer may lose is reinforcing value.

Back 239

satiation

Front 240

Primary reinforcers are more susceptible to satiation than ________________.

Back 240

Secondary reinforcers

Front 241

Generalized secondary reinforcers tend to be the least susceptible to __________.

Back 241

satiation

Front 242

A continuous schedule of reinforcement is more susceptible to satiation than an_________.

Back 242

intermittent schedule

Front 243

The effectiveness of reinforcement is enhanced when the contingent relationship between the behavior and a reinforcer is verbally clarified.

Back 243

verbal clarification

Front 244

Verbal and or physical actions that signal that a behavior will be reinforced.

Back 244

prompts

Front 245

When a prompt signals that a behavior will be reinforced it is serving as a _______.

Back 245

Positive Discriminative stimulus

Front 246

Prompts facilitate the acquisition of a _________.

Back 246

new behavior

Front 247

The gradual removal of a prompt is referred to as ______.

Back 247

fading

Front 248

Often, the target behavior is one that never occurs naturally. This will require ______.

Back 248

shaping

Front 249

Involves reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior.

Back 249

shaping

Front 250

Providing reinforcement only for behaviors that come closer and closer to the desired behavior.

Back 250

shaping

Front 251

Skinner referred to the sequence of discriminative stimulus-behavior-consequences as the ______________.

Back 251

"three-term contingency"

Front 252

Skinner claimed it accounts for the acquisition of the most complex behaviors.

Back 252

"three-term contingency"

Front 253

Consist of a number of a number of distinct responses.

Back 253

behavior chains

Front 254

The establishment of a behavior chain.

Back 254

chaining

Front 255

Chaining can be either _______________.

Back 255

forward or backward

Front 256

Begins with the first component of the chain and gradually works through the entire chain.

Back 256

forward chaining

Front 257

The components in the chain are established in reverse order.

Back 257

backward chaining

Front 258

Chaining is sometimes erroneously confused with _______.

Back 258

shaping

Front 259

Both shaping and chaining are used to establish _________.

Back 259

complex behaviors

Front 260

Only the final (terminal) behavior is of interest in ____.

Back 260

shaping

Front 261

The entire sequence of responses in important.

Back 261

chaining

Front 262

In some cases, the establishment of a complex behavior may require a combination of shaping and chaining, with _______ being used to establish each response in the behavior chain.

Back 262

shaping

Front 263

A high probability behavior is used to reinforce a low probability behavior.

Back 263

Premack Principle

Front 264

Rewarding studying with TV video game time would be following the _________.

Back 264

Premack Principle

Front 265

Is particularly useful when it's difficult to identify a stimulus that would act as a reinforcer for a particular individual.

Back 265

Premack Principle

Front 266

Combines positive reinforcement with extinction and involves reinforcing alternative behaviors while ignoring the target behavior.

Back 266

Differential reinforcement

Front 267

There are several verities including differential association of incompatible behaviors, differential association of alternative behaviors, and differential reinforcement of other behaviors.

Back 267

Differential reinforcement

Front 268

DRI

Back 268

Differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors

Front 269

DRA

Back 269

Differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors

Front 270

DRO

Back 270

Differential reinforcement of other behaviors

Front 271

Immediacy, consistency, intensity, verbal clarification, removal of all positive reinforcement, and reinforcement alternative behaviors all influence the effectiveness of ____________.

Back 271

Punishment

Front 272

The sooner punishment is supplied the more _____

Back 272

successful

Front 273

Punishment should be applied at the beginning of the behavior _______.

Back 273

chain

Front 274

Punishment must be applied on a ________.

Back 274

continuous schedule

Front 275

Punishment is usually most effective when it is initially applied in ________.

Back 275

moderation

Front 276

When punishment is too strong it's more likely to produce _________.

Back 276

avoidance aggression

Front 277

Initially administering punishment in a weak form and then gradually increasing its intensity increases the likelihood of ________.

Back 277

habituation

Front 278

Occurs when a punishment loses its effectiveness.

Back 278

habituation

Front 279

The effectiveness of punishment is maximized when the contingent relationship between the target behavior and the punishment is verbally _____.

Back 279

clarified

Front 280

Punishment works best when all stimuli that previously reinforced the behavior are identified and consistently withheld as the same time the behavior is being punished.

Back 280

Removal of All Positive Reinforcement

Front 281

Because punishment only teaches a person what not to do, its effectiveness increases substantially when it's combined with _______________.

Back 281

reinforcement for alternative behaviors.

Front 282

It is important to determine if an undesirable behavior is due to inadequate skills; and , if so, punishment must be preceded or accompanied by ___________.

Back 282

training for those skills

Front 283

It has been challenged on ethical, legal, and practical grounds.

Back 283

Punishment

Front 284

Punishment does not actually eliminate a behavior it merely _______.

Back 284

suppresses it

Front 285

Because punishment does not actually eliminate a behavior but merely suppresses it, the effects of punishment are often short-term, inconsistent, and limited to the specific situation in which the ___________.

Back 285

punishment was applied

Front 286

Is also associated with several negative side effects including fear of the punishing agent and increases in aggressiveness, negative emotions, and escape avoidance behaviors (e.g. lying, running away).

Back 286

Punishment

Front 287

For example saying "no" or "stop"

Back 287

verbal reprimands

Front 288

Their effects are inconsistent, however, and in some situations, act as positive reinforcers and actually increase the target behavior. (intended to be stopped)

Back 288

verbal reprimands

Front 289

Their effects are likely to be temporary if they are not backed-up or followed by other consequences (e.g. time out).

Back 289

verbal reprimands

Front 290

Is a form of positive punishment that entails applying a penalty following an undesirable behavior in order to eliminate it.

Back 290

Overcorrection

Front 291

Its use may involve one or both of two procedures; Restitution and positive practice.

Back 291

Overcorrection

Front 292

Involves having the individual correct any negative effects of his or her behavior.

Back 292

Restitution

Front 293

Requires the person to practice more appropriate behaviors, usually in an exaggerated fashion.

Back 293

Restitution

Front 294

Often includes providing verbal instructions, and it may require constant supervision and/or manually guiding the individual through the corrective behaviors (physical guidance), which can be problematic because it may elicit avoidant or aggressive behaviors.

Back 294

Overcorrection

Front 295

Requiring the individual to deliberately repeat the undesirable behavior to the point that it becomes aversive to the individual or the individual becomes fatigued.

Back 295

Negative practice

Front 296

It's especially useful for eliminating habits and other behaviors that the individual would like to eliminate but has been unable to control such as nail biting, hair twisting, pica, motor tics, stuttering and smoking.

Back 296

Negative practice

Front 297

Is an application of negative punishment and involves removing a specific reinforcer each time the target behavior is performed.

Back 297

Response cost

Front 298

Is most commonly associated with token economies (in which token fines are imposed for undesirable behavior).

Back 298

Response cost

Front 299

It can be used whenever the control of positive reinforcers is possible. (form of punishment)

Back 299

Response cost

Front 300

Involves removing all sources of positive reinforcement for a brief, prespecified period of time following a behavior in order to decrease that behavior.

Back 300

Time-out from reinforcement

Front 301

Research shows that duration of time is not critical. Short ones are as effective as longer ones (five to 10 minutes being optimal).

Back 301

time- outs

Front 302

Like other forms of punishment time-out is most effective when it's combined with reinforcement for ____________.

Back 302

alternative behaviors

Front 303

Its effectiveness is also increased when the time-out begins with a brief explanation of why it is ________.

Back 303

being applied

Front 304

Entails withholding reinforcement from a previously reinforced response in order to eliminate or decrease that response.

Back 304

Operant extinction

Front 305

In operant extinction, positive reinforcement must be ___________ withheld following the behavior since a single exception can re-establish the behavior and maintain it for a considerable length of time.

Back 305

consistently

Front 306

Because it is difficult to identify and consistently withhold all sources of reinforcement, extinction can be a _______________.

Back 306

slow and frustrating process

Front 307

The schedule of reinforcement that previously established and maintained the behavior affects the rate of ___________.

Back 307

extinction

Front 308

When a behavior has been reinforced on a continuous schedule extinction will be more rapid than if the behavior has been reinforced on an _________.

Back 308

intermittent one

Front 309

The greater the magnitude and the longer the duration of the previous reinforcement, the more resistant the behavior to ____________.

Back 309

extinction

Front 310

Like punishment, extinction is most successful when it's used in conjunction with ______________.

Back 310

reinforcement for other behaviors

Front 311

Contingency contracts, token economy, social skills training , and function-based interventions are comprised primarily from components of ________.

Back 311

operant techniques

Front 312

A formal written agreement between two or more people that clearly defines the behaviors that are to be modified and the rewards and punishments that will follow performance of those behaviors.

Back 312

Contingency Contracts

Front 313

Behavioral change may be required by one or all parties to a __________.

Back 313

Contingency Contract

Front 314

1. the contract must be explicit in defining what each party will receive as a result of meeting their responsibilities. 2. Behaviors in the contract must be capable of being monitored. 3. A system of sanctions for failure to meet the terms of the contract should be defined. 4. the contact should define bonuses for consistent compliance with the contract. 5. A record-keeping should be established to provide feedback to all parties about the frequency of target behaviors and delivery of reinforcers.

Back 314

Five elements necessary to ensure an effective contingency contract

Front 315

Is a structured environment in which desirable behaviors are increased by reinforcing them with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items, activities and other back-up (primary) reinforcers, while undesirable behaviors are decreased by withholding or removing tokens following those behaviors.

Back 315

Token Economy

Front 316

Tokens are _____________.

Back 316

generalized secondary reinforcers

Front 317

1. Defining the target behaviors. 2. selecting the secondary and back up reinforcers. 3. developing a system of monitoring and assessing the token economy. 4. developing a plan for reducing then eliminating ("thinning") the reinforcers.

Back 317

Steps involved in establishing a Token economy

Front 318

They permit an immediate delivery of reinforcement. Can be tailored to meet individual needs by allowing each person to select his or her own back up reinforcers. Because tokens can be exchanged for a variety of reinforcers, they are less susceptible than primary reinforcers to satiation.

Back 318

Advantages of token economies

Front 319

Is used to improve communication, assertiveness, problem-solving, and other socially adaptive skills.

Back 319

Social Skills training

Front 320

It is classified as a type of behavior therapy and incorporates techniques derived from operant and classical conditioning as well as social learning theory.

Back 320

Social Skills training

Front 321

Specific techniques include modeling, coaching, behavioral rehearsal, feedback, reinforcement, and homework assignments.

Back 321

Social Skills Training

Front 322

There is evidence that IT is an effective intervention for reducing symptoms, decreasing risk for relapse, and improving social adjustment of patients with Schizophrenia, for improving the behavior of children with conduct problems, and for reducing depression in children, adolescents, and adults, especially when used as part of a multimodal treatment approach.

Back 322

Social Skills Training

Front 323

SST

Back 323

Social Skills Training

Front 324

Behavior change strategies that are derived from the results of a functional behavioral assessment.

Back 324

Function-Based Interventions

Front 325

Also referred to as a functional behavioral analysis and is conducted to determine the purpose of an undesirable behavior and identify a more desirable substitute behavior that serves the same purpose.

Back 325

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Front 326

FBA

Back 326

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Front 327

Incorporates interviews, observations, and other sources of data that provide information about the characteristics of the behavior and on its antecedents and consequences.

Back 327

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Front 328

The goal of interventions derived from IT is to decrease or eliminate the undesirable behaviors while increasing an alternative behavior, which is achieved by eliminating the antecedents and consequences that are maintaining the undesirable behavior and providing antecedents and consequences that support the alternative behavior.

Back 328

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Front 329

Preparing for the exam requires you to become familiar with concepts that often become confused- e.g. satiation versus habituation, thinning versus fading, and shaping versus chaining. A useful strategy for this is _______

Back 329

FLASH CARDS

Front 330

The key characteristics of these learning theories are their stress on the internal thought processes that occur during learning and their rejection of the notion that external reinforcement is a necessary condition for learning to occur.

Back 330

Cognitive Learning Theories

Front 331

Learning that takes place without being manifested in performance.

Back 331

Latent Learning

Front 332

Forming "cognitive maps" without reinforcement for doing so.

Back 332

Latent Learning

Front 333

Includes a mode of learning that incorporates the role of internal cognitive processes.

Back 333

Gestalt Psychology

Front 334

Reflects an internal cognitive restructuring of the perceptual field (environment) that enhances the organism's ability to achieve its goal.

Back 334

Insight Learning

Front 335

Learning that is the result of an "aha" experience.

Back 335

Insight Learning

Front 336

Is also known as social learning theory and social cognitive theory.

Back 336

Observational Learning

Front 337

It proposes that most complex human behaviors are learned by observing another person perform those behaviors.

Back 337

Observational Learning

Front 338

Is useful not only for learning new behaviors but also for enhancing or inhibiting existing ones.

Back 338

Observational Learning

Front 339

Attentional Processes, Retention Processes, Production Processes, and Motivational Processes.

Back 339

Four processes involved in Bandura's observational learning that reflects an alteration in cognition

Front 340

The learner attends and accurately perceives the modeled behavior.

Back 340

Attentional Processes

Front 341

The learner symbolically processes the modeled behavior in memory via visual imagery or verbal coding.

Back 341

Retention Processes

Front 342

Retention is maximized through _____.

Back 342

cognitive rehearsal

Front 343

The learner must be able to accurately reproduce and rehearse the modeled behavior.

Back 343

Production Processes

Front 344

Production is enhanced through practice and performance _________.

Back 344

feedback

Front 345

While learning can occur without reinforcement, performance requires ______.

Back 345

motivation

Front 346

Is enhanced when the learner is reinforced.

Back 346

motivation

Front 347

May be either internal (self-reinforcement), vicarious, or external.

Back 347

reinforcement

Front 348

Observers are more likely to imitate a model when the model is high in ___________.

Back 348

status, prestige, or expertise

Front 349

Observers are more likely to imitate a model when the model is similar to the ____________.

Back 349

observer, especially in terms of age and gender

Front 350

Observers are more likely to imitate a model when the model's behavior is visible, salient, and relevant to the observer's _______.

Back 350

needs and goals

Front 351

Observers are more likely to imitate a model when the model has been ___________.

Back 351

reinforced for engaging in the behavior

Front 352

When the model has been reinforced for engaging in the behavior.

Back 352

vicarious reinforcement

Front 353

Motivation is enhanced when the learner is reinforced.

Back 353

Motivational Processes

Front 354

When modeling is used to treat phobic reactions,, coping models who initially exhibit apprehension but then overcome their fears and perform the desired behavior are more effective than mastery models who initially engage in behavior without fear.

Back 354

vicarious reinforcement

Front 355

Bandura's research also found that modeling is most effective when it is combined with _________.

Back 355

guided participation

Front 356

This procedure is known as participant modeling.

Back 356

Guided participation

Front 357

It consists of having the learner observe the model perform the behavior and then perform the behavior him/herself with assistance from the model.

Back 357

guided participation

Front 358

Self-Efficacy is a central concept in Bandura's ________.

Back 358

Observational Learning theory

Front 359

A person's beliefs about his or her ability to perform a behavior or task or to achieve certain goals.

Back 359

Self-Efficacy

Front 360

According to Bandura, self-efficacy beliefs are a primary source of ____________.

Back 360

motivation

Front 361

Enactive attainment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, & emotional and physiological states

Back 361

According to Bandura the four informational sources that impact self-efficacy

Front 362

Prior success in performing the task.

Back 362

Enactive attainment

Front 363

Observing others similar to oneself successfully perform the task.

Back 363

vicarious experience

Front 364

Encouragement by others.

Back 364

verbal persuasion

Front 365

Arousal, anxiety, fatigue, and other forms of emotional and physical feedback.

Back 365

emotional and physiological states

Front 366

Some research suggests that the effectiveness of guided participation is due to the improvements in self-efficacy that is provided by successful performance of the _____________.

Back 366

target responses

Front 367

It predicts that there is a reciprocal (interactive and influential) relationship between a person's (a) environment,. (b) overt behaviors, and © cognitive, affective, and other personal characteristics.

Back 367

Reciprocal Determinism

Front 368

For example, a person's past experiences in various career-related activities (past behavior) influence his her career preferences and choices (personal factors and current behavior), and the career chosen by the person (environment) then affects his or her future career-related preferences, decisions, and behaviors.

Back 368

Reciprocal Determinism

Front 369

Reciprocal Determinism is another important component in __________.

Back 369

Bandura's observational learning theory

Front 370

The learned helplessness model is not a general theory of learning but, instead, applies to the cognitive processes associated with _________.

Back 370

depression

Front 371

Refers to the tendency to give up any effort to control events in the environment.

Back 371

Learned Helplessness

Front 372

It was first observed in animals that had been exposed to uncontrollable electric shock and subsequently did not even try to escape the shock when it was possible to do so.

Back 372

Learned Helplessness

Front 373

Learned helplessness was subsequently suggested as an etiological factor in some forms of __________.

Back 373

depression

Front 374

According to the reformulated version (attributional reformulation) of the learned helplessness model, depression occurs when a person makes internal, stable, and global attributions for _________.

Back 374

negative events

Front 375

The reformulated version of the learned helplessness model.

Back 375

attributional reformulation

Front 376

Depressed people attribute the cause of negative events to themselves, believe that they will always cause negative events to happen to them, and think they cause negativity in all aspects of their lives.

Back 376

Attributional reformulation of the Learned Helplessness model

Front 377

When Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy again revised the learned helplessness model in 1989 they acknowledged the role of attributions in depression but proposed that attributions are important only to the extent to which they contribute to the person's __________________.

Back 377

sense of hopelessness

Front 378

You should be familiar with Tolman's latent learning, Kohler's insight learning, Bandura's research on observational learning (especially the types of modeling that are most effective), and the revised versions of the learned helplessness model for the __________.

Back 378

EXAM

Front 379

Share the assumption that cognition mediates emotional and behavioral dysfunction, that some types of cognitions may be monitored and altered, and that dysfunctional emotions and behavior's change when relevant cognitions are modified.

Back 379

Cognitive Behavioral Interventions

Front 380

These interventions a variety of cognitive and behavioral techniques.

Back 380

Cognitive Behavioral Interventions

Front 381

Conceptualizes emotions and behaviors in terms of a chain of events.

Back 381

Rational-emotive behavioral therapy

Front 382

REBT

Back 382

Rational-emotive behavioral therapy

Front 383

A-B-C -- where A is the external (activating) event to which the individual is exposed. B is the belief the individual has about A, and C is the emotion or behavior that results from B.

Back 383

Rational-emotive behavioral therapy

Front 384

An emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to to beliefs about that event rather than the event itself.

Back 384

Rational-emotive behavioral therapy

Front 385

According to Ellis the primary cause of neurosis is the continual repetition of certain common _______.

Back 385

irrational beliefs

Front 386

Are characterized by dogmatic demands (must's and should's), awfulizing "(it's awful if…"), low frustration tolerance, and negative evaluations of oneself and others.

Back 386

irrational beliefs

Front 387

As defined by Ellis, irrational beliefs are the result of certain biological tendencies that include negativism, moodiness, and excitement-seeking and that interfere with the ability to think ____________.

Back 387

productively and rationally

Front 388

Two more events -- D and E --are added to the ABC chain: D is the therapist's attempt to dispute and alter the individual's irrational beliefs, and E refers to the alternative thoughts and beliefs that result from D.

Back 388

Rational-emotive behavioral therapy

Front 389

To help clients replace irrational beliefs with more appropriate ones, therapists adopt an educational, confrontative, and persuasive approach and use a variety of techniques including modeling, behavioral rehearsal, problem-solving, in vivo desensitization, rational-emotive imagery, and cognitive homework assignments.

Back 389

Rational-emotive behavioral therapy

Front 390

Developed cognitive therapy in 1984.

Back 390

Beck

Front 391

Cognitive therapy is also referred to as ______.

Back 391

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Front 392

Cognitive therapy was originally developed as a treatment for _______.

Back 392

depression

Front 393

CT

Back 393

Cognitive Therapy

Front 394

Was originally developed as a therapy for depression but has since been successfully applied to other disorders including anxiety, anorexia, bulimia, sexual dysfunction and substance abuse.

Back 394

Cognitive Therapy

Front 395

Its primary goal is to help clients identify and alter dysfunctional and distorted assumptions.

Back 395

Cognitive Therapy

Front 396

Cognitive Schemas, Automatic Thoughts, Cognitive Distortions, & Cognitive Profiles

Back 396

Types of cognitions targeted by practitioners of Cognitive Therapy

Front 397

Underlying cognitive structures and rules that consist of core beliefs and that determine how individuals codify, categorize and interpret their experiences.

Back 397

Cognitive Schemas

Front 398

Are revealed in automatic thoughts and supported by cognitive distortions.

Back 398

Cognitive Schemas

Front 399

Develop early in live as a result of biological development, and environmental factors. They can be either functional or dysfunctional and may be dormant until they're activated by internal or external stress, especially stress caused by conditions similar to those under which they originally developed.

Back 399

Cognitive Schemas

Front 400

Once activated, dysfunctional ONES impair the ability to think rationally and predispose the individual to depression or other disorders.

Back 400

Cognitive Schemas

Front 401

Are "surface level cognitions" that "intercede between an event or stimulus and the individual's emotional and behavioral reactions."

Back 401

Automatic Thoughts

Front 402

Are not necessarily associated with psychological dysfunction but contribute to dysfunction when they're the result of maladaptive schemas and are frequent, persistent, and not critically examined.

Back 402

Automatic Thoughts

Front 403

Are systematic errors or biases in information processing and are the link between maladaptive cognitive schemas and negative automatic thoughts.

Back 403

Cognitive Distortions

Front 404

Common ones include arbitrary inference, overgeneralization, personalization, selective abstraction, dichotomous thinking, and emotional reasoning.

Back 404

Cognitive Distortions

Front 405

Drawing conclusions without corroborative evidence.

Back 405

arbitrary inference

Front 406

Drawing general conclusions on the basis of a single event.

Back 406

overgeneralization

Front 407

Attending to detail while ignoring the total context.

Back 407

selective abstraction

Front 408

Erroneously attributing external events to oneself.

Back 408

personalization

Front 409

Thinking in polarized, "either/or" ways.

Back 409

dichotomous thinking

Front 410

Believing things are a certain way because one feels they are that way.

Back 410

emotional reasoning

Front 411

Like automatic thoughts, they become problematic when they are pervasive and not critically examined or challenged.

Back 411

Cognitive Distortions

Front 412

According to Beck, each psychological disorder is characterized by a ________.

Back 412

Cognitive Profile

Front 413

Its cognitive profile involves the "cognitive triad" of a negative view of oneself, the world, and the future.

Back 413

depression

Front 414

Its cognitive profile reflects an excessive form of normal survival mechanisms and consists of unrealistic fears about physical and psychological threats.

Back 414

anxiety

Front 415

It relies on collaborative empiricism.

Back 415

Cognitive Therapy

Front 416

It involves developing a collaborative therapist-client relationship and gathering evidence to test hypothesis about the client's beliefs and assumptions.

Back 416

collaborative empiricism

Front 417

It is a time-limited treatment, with the average length of therapy being 15 sessions and sessions being structured and goal oriented.

Back 417

Cognitive Therapy

Front 418

1. establishing rapport and trust. 2. socializing the client to cognitive therapy. 3. educating the client about his/her disorder, the cognitive model, and therapy process. 4. normalizing the client's difficulties and instilling hope. 5. determining and, if necessary, correcting the client's expectations about therapy. 6. collecting additional information about the clients problems. and 7. developing a goals list.

Back 418

Goals ordinarily addressed in the first session of Cognitive Therapy

Front 419

While the focus is on the Client's current experiences, historical material may be addressed to clarify his or her core beliefs.

Back 419

Cognitive Therapy

Front 420

It assumes that the relevant cognitions become accessible and modifiable only with affect arousal, and consequently, imagery and other techniques are used to elicit affect.

Back 420

Cognitive Therapy

Front 421

Questioning is a primary therapeutic tool and often takes the form of Socratic dialogue.

Back 421

Cognitive Therapy

Front 422

Is known as guided discovery and involves asking questions that are designed to help the client reach logical conclusions about a problem and its consequences.

Back 422

Socratic dialogue

Front 423

Relapse prevention is a focus of throughout treatment.

Back 423

Cognitive Therapy

Front 424

Methods to meet this goal in cognitive therapy include the therapist emphasizing the client's part in causing change in mood and behavior, and toward the end of therapy, the therapist works with the client to develop a self-therapy plan.

Back 424

relapse prevention

Front 425

Cognitive therapy incorporates a variety of ________.

Back 425

behavioral and cognitive techniques

Front 426

Activity scheduling, behavioral rehearsal, social skills training, and relaxation.

Back 426

Behavioral strategies used in Cognitive Therapy

Front 427

The downward arrow questioning and evidence, decatastrophizing, mental imagery, and cognitive rehearsal.

Back 427

Cognitive strategies in Cognitive Therapy

Front 428

"If so, then what?" questioning.

Back 428

Downward arrow questioning

Front 429

Clients are often given homework assignments, and an early assignment requires the client to keep a "Daily Record of Dysfunctional Thoughts" in order to identify the client's automatic thoughts.

Back 429

Cognitive Therapy

Front 430

The specific techniques used in therapy depend on the nature and severity of the client's symptoms. For example, behavioral techniques designed to increase the client's overall activity level are often the initial interventions for those with mild and moderate depression. (Beck & Weishaar, 1989)

Back 430

Cognitive Therapy

Front 431

REBT, CT, SIT, Thought Stopping, & Attribution Retraining

Back 431

Cognitive restructuring techniques

Front 432

REBT, CT, SIT, Thought Stopping, & Attribution Retraining all conceptualize maladaptive behaviors as the result of ______________.

Back 432

disturbances in thinking

Front 433

SIT, Thought Stopping, & Attribution Retraining are narrower in focus and utilize more a more restricted range of strategies then ________.

Back 433

REBT, and CT

Front 434

Was first used by Meichenbaum and Goodman in 1971 to help impulsive and hyperactive children perform academic and other tasks more successfully by teaching them to interpolate adaptive self-controlling thoughts between stimulus situation and their response to that situation.

Back 434

Self-Instructional Training

Front 435

SIT

Back 435

Self-Instructional Training

Front 436

SIT incorporates the work of Bygotsky and Luria, who proposed that true voluntary behavior does not occur until there is a shift from external to internal __________.

Back 436

Language control

Front 437

Cognitive modeling, Cognitive Participant Modeling, Overt Self-Instruction, Fading Overt instruction, Covert Self-Instruction.

Back 437

Five steps of Self-Instructional Training

Front 438

The client observes a model perform the task while the model makes self-statements aloud.

Back 438

Cognitive Modeling

Front 439

Include questions about the nature of the task, answers to those questions, specific instructions on how to do the task, and self-reinforcement.

Back 439

Self-statements

Front 440

The client performs the task as the model verbalizes the instructions.

Back 440

Cognitive Participant Modeling

Front 441

The client performs the task while instructing him or herself aloud.

Back 441

Overt Self-Instruction

Front 442

The client whispers the instructions while carrying out the task.

Back 442

Fading overt Self-Instruction

Front 443

The client performs the task while saying the instructions covertly.

Back 443

Covert Self-Instruction

Front 444

It entails eliminating obsessive ruminations, self criticism, depressive or anxiety-arousing ideas, and other unwanted or unproductive thoughts by using such techniques as covertly yelling, "stop, stop, stop" or snapping a rubber band placed around the wrist whenever unwanted thoughts occur.

Back 444

Thought Stopping

Front 445

Thought stopping is often combined with ______.

Back 445

covert assertion

Front 446

Making alternative assertive self-statements following thought stopping.

Back 446

covert assertion

Front 447

Focuses on altering the individual's perceptions of the causes of his or her problematic behavior and has been successfully used to treat depression, anxiety, alcoholism and several other disorders as well as to improve the academic performance of underachieving students.

Back 447

Attribution Retraining

Front 448

Attribution retraining is consistent with the assumptions of the _____________.

Back 448

reformulated learned helplessness model (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale 1990)

Front 449

Attribution retraining is consistent with the optimistic explanatory style that is promoted in Seligman's (1990) theory of __________.

Back 449

learned optimism

Front 450

Its goal is to help clients attribute their failures to external, unstable, and specific factors and successes to internal, stable, and global factors.

Back 450

Attribution Retraining

Front 451

Use a combination of cognitive and behavioral strategies to help clients deal effectively with problematic external events.

Back 451

Coping and Problem-Solving Techniques

Front 452

Was designed to help people deal with stress by increasing their coping skills.

Back 452

Stress Inoculation

Front 453

Treatment involves three phases: a. The cognitive preparation phase is also known as the conceptualization phase. It is primarily educational and involves helping the client understand his or her behavioral and cognitive responses to stressful situations. b. During the skills acquisition and rehearsal phase the client learns to rehearse a variety of coping skills. Specific interventions during this phase include direct-action techniques and cognitive techniques. c. in the final application and follow-through phase, the client applies the coping skills he or she has acquired to imagined, filmed, and in vivo stress producing situations.

Back 453

Stress Inoculation

Front 454

Relaxation, pleasant imagery, arranging "escape routes."

Back 454

direct-action techniques

Front 455

Replacing negative self-statements with coping self-statements.

Back 455

cognitive techniques

Front 456

Its most recent version (D'Zurilla & Nezu 2007) proposes that problem-solving outcomes are determined primarily by two factors: Problem orientation and problem-solving style.

Back 456

Problem-Solving Therapy

Front 457

PST

Back 457

Problem-Solving Therapy

Front 458

Refers to relatively stable cognitive schemas that can be either positive or negative and that represent the person's view about problems and his/her ability to successfully solve them.

Back 458

Problem orientation

Front 459

Refers to the activities the individual engages in when solving problems.

Back 459

Problem-solving Style

Front 460

Distinguishes between rational, impulsive/careless, and avoidance styles, with the rational style being identified as the only one that's likely to result in adaptive problem solutions.

Back 460

Problem-Solving Therapy

Front 461

It is characterized by a reliance on five skills: recognizing the problem, defining the problem, generalizing alternative solutions, choosing the best solution, and implementing and evaluating the chosen solution.

Back 461

Problem-Solving Therapy

Front 462

In therapy, several strategies are used to help clients adopt a positive problem-solving orientation and rational problem-solving style, including psychoeducation, guided discussion, role-playing, and homework assignments.

Back 462

Problem-Solving Therapy

Front 463

Is a brief form of therapy that is usually conducted as group therapy. It's based on the assumption that deficits in three aspects of self-control increase a person's vulnerability to depression and make it difficult to deal effectively wit depressive symptoms.

Back 463

Self-control therapy

Front 464

According to Rehm's Self-Control Therapy the three aspects of self-control where weakness tends to make a person vulnerable to depression are ______.

Back 464

Self-Monitoring, Self-Evaluation, & Self-Reinforcement

Front 465

Depressed people selectively attend to negative events and to the immediate (versus delayed) consequences of their behavior.

Back 465

Self-Monitoring

Front 466

People who are depressed make inaccurate internal attributions and compare their behavior to standards that are excessively rigid and perfectionistic.

Back 466

Self-Evaluation

Front 467

Depressed individuals engage in low rates of self-reward and high rates of self-punishment.

Back 467

Self-Reinforcement

Front 468

In Self-Control Therapy sessions and behavioral homework assignments correspond to the three aspects of _______.

Back 468

self-control

Front 469

In Self-Control Therapy during the self-monitoring phase of therapy, the client is taught to monitor negative __________.

Back 469

self-statements and positive outcomes

Front 470

During the self-evaluation phase of self-control therapy the client is taught to set realistic goals to make appropriate _________.

Back 470

attributions of his or her behavior

Front 471

During the self-reinforcement phase of Self-control therapy, the client learns to reinforce him- or herself with positive self-statements and activities for working toward or achieving _________.

Back 471

his or her goals

Front 472

Attributes depression to a low rate of response-contingent reinforcement due to inadequate reinforcing stimuli in the environmental and/or in the individual's lake of skill in obtaining reinforcement.

Back 472

Lewinsohn's Behavioral Model

Front 473

According to Lewinsohn, when a person's behaviors - for instance, attempts to interact with family members or co-workers - are not reinforced, those behaviors _________.

Back 473

extinguish

Front 474

Proposed that, in addition to eliminating or reducing certain behaviors, a low response-contingent reinforcement elicits pessimism, low self-esteem, and other features that are associated with depression.

Back 474

Lewinsohn's Behavioral Model

Front 475

Initially focused on "reactivating" depressed patients by increasing their activity levels and access to reinforced events but subsequently incorporated cognitive techniques similar to those developed by Beck.

Back 475

Lewinsohn's Behavioral Model

Front 476

There has been renewed interest in recent years in behavioral activation approaches for depression that utilize behavioral strategies ________.

Back 476

only (Hopko, Lejuez, Ruggerio, & Eifert, 2003)

Front 477

Encompass a variety of techniques that emphasize the client's responsibility for modifying his or her behavior.

Back 477

Self-Management Procedures

Front 478

Include self-monitoring, stimulus control, and biofeedback as well as several of the previously-described techniques, including self-instruction and thought stopping.

Back 478

Self-Management Procedures

Front 479

Is a common initial procedure in self-management programs and other cognitive-behavioral interventions and involves having the client record information about the frequency and conditions surrounding the target behavior.

Back 479

Self-Monitoring

Front 480

Results provide the therapist and client with information about the nature and magnitude of the behavior so that an appropriate treatment strategy can be developed and the effects of the treatment can be evaluated.

Back 480

Self-Monitoring

Front 481

Because IT often changes the nature of the target behavior in the desired direction, it's often used not only as an assessment tool but also to promote behavioral change.

Back 481

Self-Monitoring

Front 482

When a behavior's performance is contingent on the presence of a certain stimuli.

Back 482

Stimulus control

Front 483

These techniques are designed to alter the associations between stimuli and the behavior and/or its consequences and include a. Narrowing, b. Cue strengthening c. Fading

Back 483

Stimulus control

Front 484

involves restricting the target behavior to a limited set of stimuli (e.g. eating only at mealtimes).

Back 484

Narrowing

Front 485

Entails linking the behavior to specific environmental conditions (e.g. studying in a particular location at home).

Back 485

Cue strengthening

Front 486

Consists of changing the stimulus conditions associated with the behavior (e.g. replacing a fetish object with more appropriate sexual stimuli).

Back 486

Fading

Front 487

May be classified as a self-management technique since it involves having a client learn to modify his or her own behaviors and, like many other self-management procedures, is based on the principles of operant conditioning. The target in THIS training is usually a physiological response that is considered involuntary such as heart rate, GSR, skin temperature, brain wave activity, or blood glucose level.

Back 487

Biofeedback

Front 488

When using this technique the client is connected to an electromyograph (EMG), electroencephalograph (EEG), or other apparatus that provides immediate and continuous performance feedback about the target response, usually in the form of visual or auditory signal.

Back 488

Biofeedback

Front 489

A number of studies have found _______________ to be as effective as biofeedback for several problems including tension headaches, hypertension, general anxiety, insomnia, and lower back pain.

Back 489

Relaxation Training

Front 490

There is evidence that ____________ may be the treatment of choice for some disorders. Raynaud's disease, urinary and fecal incontinence have been successfully treated in this manner.

Back 490

Biofeedback

Front 491

A combination of thermal biofeedback and autogenic training (a relaxation technique) has been found to be the best approach for ______.

Back 491

migraine headaches

Front 492

Cognitive-behavioral interventions are a "popular" topic on the _________.

Back 492

licensing exam

Front 493

Questions on the licensing exam covering cognitive-behavioral interventions will most likely address fairly _____.

Back 493

detailed information

Front 494

________________ you might be required to identify Beck's cognitive profile for depression, the three phases of stress inoculation, or the results of research on the effectiveness of biofeedback for Raynaud's disease or migraine headaches.

Back 494

On the licensing exam

Front 495

Encoding, Storage, & Retrieval

Back 495

Three processes in memory

Front 496

Is the translation of incoming stimuli into a code that can be processed by the brain.

Back 496

encoding

Front 497

All though it is often automatic, it is more effective when it involves deliberate rehearsal (like flash cards)

Back 497

encoding

Front 498

The process of maintaining information in memory.

Back 498

storage

Front 499

It can be disrupted by several factors including retroactive and proactive interference and brain trauma.

Back 499

storage

Front 500

Refers to the recovery of stored information in the memory.

Back 500

retrieval

Front 501

Is facilitated by the use of retrieval cues.

Back 501

retrieval

Front 502

Information-processing and levels-of-processing.

Back 502

Models of Memory

Front 503

Attempt to explain how memory works.

Back 503

Models of Memory

Front 504

Describes memory as consisting of three components - sensory memory, short-term memory, & long-term memory.

Back 504

The Information-processing (Multi-Store) Model

Front 505

Is also known as sensory register and provides brief storage of sensory stimuli.

Back 505

Sensory Memory

Front 506

Although IT seems to be capable of storing a great deal of information, it is retained for no more than a few seconds.

Back 506

Sensory Memory

Front 507

There may be separate sensory memories, one for each of the ________.

Back 507

senses

Front 508

The sensory store for auditory information.

Back 508

"echoic store"

Front 509

The store for visual stimuli.

Back 509

"iconic store"

Front 510

When information in sensory memory becomes the focus of attention, it is transferred to _____.

Back 510

short-term memory

Front 511

Holds a limited amount of information, and without rehearsal, information HERE begins to fade within 30 seconds.

Back 511

short-term memory

Front 512

STM

Back 512

short-term memory

Front 513

Encoding in short-term memory is believed to be primarily acoustic but may also be, to a lesser degree, semantic, visual and/or _________.

Back 513

kinesthetic

Front 514

Consists of primary memory and working memory.

Back 514

short-term memory

Front 515

Passive memory storage.

Back 515

primary memory

Front 516

With regard to primary memory Miller proposed in 1956 (the year Marty McCurdy was born) that the average capacity for short term memory is between 5 and 9 distinct units and that the ability to hold larger amounts of information in short-term memory was due to ________.

Back 516

chunking

Front 517

Groupings of related items of information.

Back 517

chunking

Front 518

To remember 21 numbers you might group the numbers into groups of three, resulting in seven distinct units of information.

Back 518

chunking

Front 519

Is responsible for the manipulation and processing of information.

Back 519

working memory

Front 520

It is what allows you to repeat the phone number you just found in the phone book until you dial the number on the phone.

Back 520

working memory

Front 521

Although the process involved in converting information from STM to long-term memory is not well understood, it's likely due to they type of ________.

Back 521

rehearsal

Front 522

LTM

Back 522

Long-term memory

Front 523

Information is more likely to be transferred into Long-term memory with _________.

Back 523

elaborate rehearsal

Front 524

Involves relating new information to existing information.

Back 524

elaborate rehearsal

Front 525

information is more likely to be transferred into LTM with elaborate rehearsal then with ___________.

Back 525

maintenance rehearsal

Front 526

Simply repeating the information with little or no processing.

Back 526

maintenance rehearsal

Front 527

Encoding in LTM is largely __________ although some information may be encoded visually or acoustically.

Back 527

semantic

Front 528

The capacity of LTM seems to be ________.

Back 528

unlimited

Front 529

Some experts believe that material stored in LTM is ______.

Back 529

permanent

Front 530

Consists of recent (secondary) memory and remote memory.

Back 530

Long-term memory

Front 531

The existence of separate short- and long-term stores is supported by studies of the ____________.

Back 531

serial position effect

Front 532

When people are asked to recall a list of items immediately after reading the list, the items in the beginning and end of the list are ________.

Back 532

recalled much better than those in the middle

Front 533

Words at the beginning of the list have already been rehearsed and are stored in long-term memory.

Back 533

"primacy effect"

Front 534

Items at the end of the list are still in short-term memory.

Back 534

"recency effect"

Front 535

When there is a brief time delay between reading the list and recalling it, there is only a primacy effect, and this is apparently due to the fact that items at the end of the list are no longer in ________.

Back 535

short-term memory

Front 536

An alternative information-processing model to the information-processing (multi store) model.

Back 536

Levels-of-processing model

Front 537

It proposes that the differences in memory are due to the differences in depth of processing rather than to separate memory stores.

Back 537

Levels-of-processing model

Front 538

Distinguishes between three levels of processing: structural, phonemic, and sematic.

Back 538

Levels-of-processing model

Front 539

When trying to memorize a word you can focus on its structural, phonemic, or semantic ________.

Back 539

properties

Front 540

Is the word in capital letters?

Back 540

structural or physical properties

Front 541

What does the word rhyme with?

Back 541

phonemic or sound properties

Front 542

What does the word mean?

Back 542

semantic level of processing

Front 543

The deepest level of processing that produces the greatest amount of recall.

Back 543

semantic

Front 544

Is conceptualized as consisting of procedural and declarative components.

Back 544

Long-term memory

Front 545

Stores information about how to do things ("learning how").

Back 545

procedural memory

Front 546

Is used to acquire, retain, and employ perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills and habits.

Back 546

procedural memory

Front 547

Mediates the acquisition of facts and other information ("learning that or what").

Back 547

declarative memory

Front 548

Is further divided into semantic and episodic memory.

Back 548

declarative memory

Front 549

Includes general knowledge that is independent of any context and is responsible for the storage of facts, rules, and concepts.

Back 549

Semantic memory

Front 550

Consists of information about events that have been personally experienced.

Back 550

Episodic memory

Front 551

Autobiographical memory

Back 551

Episodic memory

Front 552

Vivid, detailed images of what one was doing at the time a dramatic event occurred.

Back 552

flashbulb memories

Front 553

Flashbulb memories are stored in _______.

Back 553

Episodic memory

Front 554

Is affected more by normal aging than are semantic and procedural memory.

Back 554

Episodic memory

Front 555

Some investigators also distinguish between implicit and explicit aspects of ________.

Back 555

Long-term memory

Front 556

Automatic memory.

Back 556

Implicit memory

Front 557

Memory that requires conscious recollection.

Back 557

explicit memory

Front 558

The division of memory into implicit/procedural and explicit/declarative is supported by research showing that implicit and explicit memory involve different ___________.

Back 558

brain structures

Front 559

The hippocampus and frontal lobes seem to mediate _________.

Back 559

explicit memory

Front 560

The basal ganglia and the cerebellum are important for __________.

Back 560

implicit memory

Front 561

Some investigators identify IT as another component of LTM that is responsible for the capacity to remember to do things in the future.

Back 561

prospective memory

Front 562

The remember to remember memory.

Back 562

prospective memory

Front 563

Research of the effects of aging on prospective memory has found that, while older adults often do less well than younger adults on measures of prospective memory under controlled conditions, in naturalistic settings, they often do better, apparently because they're more likely to make use of __________________.

Back 563

external aides such as lists and calendars

Front 564

The research has confirmed a strong relationship between attention and ________.

Back 564

memory

Front 565

The ability to maintain attention in the presence of distractions accounts for the difference between individuals with good versus poor ____________.

Back 565

working memory

Front 566

Working memory consists of a central executive and three subsystems - the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.

Back 566

Multi-Component Model of Working Memory

Front 567

The central executive is the primary component of working memory and is described by Baddeley as an ________________.

Back 567

"attentional control system"

Front 568

Is really sick of making psychology flash-cards at 8:37 p.m. central time on Friday night June 6, 2014.

Back 568

Marty McCurdy

Front 569

It's responsible for directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information, and coordinating the three subsystems.

Back 569

Central executive component

Front 570

Responsible for temporarily storing auditory-verbal information.

Back 570

phonological loop

Front 571

Responsible for temporarily storing visual-spatial information.

Back 571

visuo-spatial sketchpad

Front 572

Temporarily integrates auditory, visual, and spatial information.

Back 572

Episodic buffer

Front 573

According to the Multi-component-model of working memory tasks that depend on the central executive are the ones that are most adversely affected by ___________.

Back 573

increasing age

Front 574

Was the first of the "bottleneck" theories of attention.

Back 574

Filter Theory of Selective Attention

Front 575

It's based on the information-processing model and explains how information is transferred from sensory memory to short-term memory.

Back 575

Filter Theory of Selective Attention

Front 576

According to this theory, a. two sensory stimuli presented at the same time are maintained for a brief period in the sensory register; b. a filter selects one of the stimuli to pass through a temporary buffer for later processing; and c. the stimulus that passes through the channel to short-term memory is processed for meaning and comes into conscious awareness.

Back 576

Filter Theory of Selective Attention

Front 577

The purpose of the filter in the filter theory of selective attention is to prevent the overloading of the capacity of ____________.

Back 577

short-term memory

Front 578

The initial processing of visual information involves two stages; the initial preattentive stage and the attentive stage.

Back 578

Feature-Integration stage

Front 579

The basic features of the object (e.g. size, color, orientation) are perceived in parallel at an automatic or subconscious level.

Back 579

preattentive stage

Front 580

The features of an object are processed serially to form a coherent whole, and this binding of features depends on focal attention.

Back 580

attentive stage

Front 581

According to Treisman and Gelade, once an object has been correctly integrated, it ordinarily continues to be perceived and stored in memory as a __________.

Back 581

unitary object

Front 582

Is affected by several factors including schemas, which are cognitive structures or frameworks that influence how new information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Back 582

The Accuracy of Memories

Front 583

Many distortions in memory are the result of interpreting information through existing schemas that may introduce systematic ___________.

Back 583

biases into memory

Front 584

People tend to construct memories by combining elements of new information with existing information, which can cause inaccuracies and _______.

Back 584

distortions

Front 585

Existing knowledge affects what we pay attention to and remembering about an event and what we recall about the event at a _________.

Back 585

later time

Front 586

Ebbinghaus determined that the role of learning of nonsense syllables is followed by a predictable ____________.

Back 586

"forgetting curve"

Front 587

Most forgetting occurs during the first four to five days and then gradually tapers off.

Back 587

"forgetting curve"

Front 588

Learning produces a trace, or engram, which is a physiological change in the brain that decays over time as the result of disuse.

Back 588

Trace Decay Theory

Front 589

People forget less when asleep than when awake for an equal amount of time which suggests that forgetting is due more to interference than to the ________.

Back 589

decay of memory traces over time

Front 590

Proposes that forgetting occurs when the ability to recall certain information is affected by information acquired previously or subsequently.

Back 590

Interference Theory

Front 591

Is most likely when new and old information are similar; when the task involves recall (versus recognition); and when the information to be recalled is unimportant and meaningless.

Back 591

interference

Front 592

Retroactive and proactive are the two types of interference that adversely affect _______.

Back 592

memory

Front 593

When recently learned (new) material interferes with the recall of previously learned (old) material.

Back 593

Retroactive interference

Front 594

Because of the retroactive interference of making these flash-cards I have ___________.

Back 594

forgotten everything I ever knew

Front 595

When prior (old) learning interferes with the learning or recall of subsequent (new) material.

Back 595

Proactive interference.

Front 596

According to this view, forgetting results when cues needed to retrieve information from long-term memory are insufficient or incomplete.

Back 596

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

Front 597

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is believed to be due to inadequate __________.

Back 597

retrieval cues

Front 598

This principle proposes that the greater the similarity between the way information is encoded and the cues that are present at the time of recall, the better the recall.

Back 598

Encoding Specificity

Front 599

State-dependent learning supports the ______.

Back 599

Encoding Specificity principle

Front 600

Recall of information is sometimes better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

Back 600

State-dependent learning

Front 601

The fact that people perform better on recognition tasks then recall tasks supports the _______.

Back 601

Encoding Specificity principle

Front 602

Performance is usually better on recognition then recall because recognition items provide more ____________.

Back 602

retrieval cues

Front 603

Information is most likely to be transferred from short-term to long-term memory when new information is made more meaningful by relating it to existing knowledge.

Back 603

Elaborative Rehearsal

Front 604

Formal strategies for improving memory and are classified as visual or verbal.

Back 604

mnemonic devices

Front 605

Make use of visual imagery for memory.

Back 605

Visual mnemonics

Front 606

Involves visually associating items to be remembered with a series of places (loci) already in memory.

Back 606

method of loci

Front 607

Patrick Jayne's memory palace is a ______.

Back 607

method of loci

Front 608

Imagery technique that is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked.

Back 608

keyword method

Front 609

To remember the French word for book--"livre"--a person would create the image of a leaf on a book.

Back 609

keyword method

Front 610

The effectiveness of imagery is illustrated by people who have the ability to form eidetic images, which allow them to recall events, objects, and information with _________.

Back 610

great accuracy

Front 611

Visual images of extreme clarity and detail.

Back 611

eidetic images

Front 612

Patrick Jayne has the ability to form ______.

Back 612

eidetic images

Front 613

Include acronyms and acrostics, which are both useful for remembering a list of words and phrases.

Back 613

Verbal mnemonics

Front 614

A word that is formed using the first letter of each item in a list.

Back 614

Acronym

Front 615

A phrase or rhyme that's constructed from the first letter of each word that is to be memorized.

Back 615

Acrostic

Front 616

"See Piaget creep forward" is an acrostic for _____.

Back 616

Piaget's fours stages of cognitive development

Front 617

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Back 617

Piaget's fours stages of cognitive development

Front 618

Moderate levels of arousal maximize the efficiency of learning and performance.

Back 618

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Front 619

Extremely low and high levels of arousal are associated with decreased efficiency in learning and performance.

Back 619

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Front 620

According to the Yerkes-Dodson Law the relationship between arousal and learning assumes the shape of an ______.

Back 620

inverted-U

Front 621

The relationship between arousal and learning is also affected by ________.

Back 621

task difficulty

Front 622

Usually, the more difficult the task, the lower the_________.

Back 622

optimal level of arousal

Front 623

When attempting to lift a car or deadlift 600 lbs. the optimal level of arousal is ________.

Back 623

very high