Statistical Methods In Psychology. Based On Bernard C. Beins Book: "research Methods: A Took For Life" Third Edition

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Factorial Design

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A design of a research study in which the investigator manipulates more than one independent variable in a single study, with each level of on independent variable (IV) crossed with each level of all other IV's

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Main Effect

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In a factorial design, differences among groups for a single independent variable that are significant, temporarily ignoring all other independent variables.

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Interaction Effect

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In a factorial design, differences across groups of a single independent variable that are predictable only knowing the level of another independent variable.

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Higher Order Interaction

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An interaction in a factorial design that involves the joint effects of two or more independent variables.

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Repeated Measures Design

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A design in which a single participant is observed and measured on more than one level of an IV rather than measuring different individuals on each level of the IV

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Analysis of Variance (omnibus F-Test)

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A statistical analysis that permits simultaneous evaluation of differences among groups in research using multiple groups and multiple IV

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Planned Comparison

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A comparison of differences across levels of an independent variable when the researched decides during the deign of the study to make the comparison rather than waiting until after preliminary data analysis.

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Post Hoc Comparison

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A comparison of differences across levels of an IV when the researcher decides to make comparisons after a preliminary data analysis.

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Repeated Measures (within-subjects design)

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A research design in which the same individual provides data in more than one group, essentially serving as their own control group.

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Between- Groups design

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A research design in which a single individual does not provide data for more than one condition or group.

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Natural Pairs

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A pairing of individuals, like twins, who are similar to one another in some way and are useful in comparison after being exposed to different levels of an IV.

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Order Effects

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The result of multiple or repeated measurements of individuals in different experiment conditions such that a particular behavior changes depending on which condition it follows.

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Sequence Effects

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The result of multiple or repeated measurements of individuals in different experiment conditions such as they behave differently on later measurements as a result of having undergone the earlier measurements.

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Transfer

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a change in behavior in a repeated measures design that results from learning what takes place in an earlier condition.

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Symmetric Transfer

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A change in behavior in a repeated measures design that results from learning in an earlier condition, with the same degree of change in later behaviors, regardless of the order of the conditions.

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Asymmetric Transfer

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a change in behavior in a repeated measures design that results from learning in an earlier condition, with differences in the amount of transfer in a later condition depending on which condition occurred first.

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Counterbalancing

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In a repeated measures design, the changing of the order of conditions across individuals to avoid contamination of data because of systematic sequence, order, or transfer effects.

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Complete counterbalancing

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In a repeated measures design, the use of all possible orders of experimental conditions to avoid contamination of data because of systematic sequence, order, or transfer effects.

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Selection Threat

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A threat to the internal validity of a study such that groups to be compared differ before being exposed to different experimental treatments, so ant differences after treatment could be due to the initial differences rather than to the IV.

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Maturation Threat

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A threat to the Internal validity of a study due to short- or long- term changes in a participant due to psychological changes such as boredom, fatigue, etc. or because of physical maturation (longitudinal study)

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Attrition (Mortality) Threat

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A threat to the internal validity of a study when subjects drop out of the study, leading to a change in the nature of the study.

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History Threat

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A threat to the internal validity of a study that results when some event outside the research project affects participants systematically.

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Instrumentation Threat

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A threat to the internal Validity of a study that results from changes in the way the dependent variable is measured, due to factors like poor calibration of mechanical equipment, or changes in the way researchers record subjective observations.

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Testing Threat

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A threat to the internal validity of a study when participants' behavior changes as a function to having been tested previously.

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Statistical Regression Threat

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A threat to the internal validity of a study that results when participants are categorized and selected for research participation on the basis of an initial observation that involves significant measurement error that is not likely to repeat itself on later measurements, giving the false impression that change is due to a treatment when it is really die to the difference in measurement error.

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One-group Pretest-Posttest Design

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A quasi-experimental research design in which a single group is measured before a treatment is applied, and then again afterwards

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Static-Group Comparison Design

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A quasi-experimental research design in which two groups that differ in some pre-existing dimension (i.e., participants are not randomly assigned to conditions) are compared.

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Nonequivalent Control Group Design

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A quasi-experimental research design in which two groups that differ on some pre-existing dimension (i.e., participants are not randomly assigned to conditions) are measured on a pretest, exposed to a treatment, and measured on a posttest.

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Baseline

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a series of measurements recorded before a treatment is applied to see the normal course of behavior prior to intervention.

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Interrupted Time Series Design

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A quasi-experimental research design in which a group is measured at different times, with a treatment applied at some point, resulting in baseline measurements and post-treatment measurements.

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Replicated Interrupted Time Series Design

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A quasi-experimental research design in which different groups are measured in an interrupted time series design, with a treatment being applied at a different time for each group.

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Survey Research

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A research method in which an investigator asks questions of a respondent.

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Population

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A set consisting of every person or data point that would be of interest to a researcher

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Census

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Data collection that includes every member of a population of interest.

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Sampling Frame

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A subset of a population from which a sample is actually selected.

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Nondifferentiation

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the tendency for respondents to give the same answer to a question, regardless of content

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Open-ended question

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In survey research, a question that respondents answer using their own words, unconstrained by choices provided by the researcher

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Closed-ended question

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In survey research, a question that contains a set of answers that a respondent chooses.

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Satisficing

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The tendency for respondents to be satisfied with the first acceptable response to a question or on a task, even if it is not the best response.

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Telescoping

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A phenomenon of memory in which events that occurred in the distant past are remembered as having more recently than they actually did.

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Chronically Accessible Information

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Memories that are available for retrieval at any time.

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Temporarily Accessible Information

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Memories that are available for retrieval only when cued by exposure to information that cues that memory.

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Response Bias

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A tendency of a respondent to answer in predictable ways, independent of the question content, such as agreeing with a statement or always providing high or low ratings on a Likert scale.

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Social Desirability Bias

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The tendency of respondents to answer questions in ways that generate a positive impression of themselves.

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Impression Management

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A form of social desirability bias in which respondents actively deceive researchers in order to generate a positive impression of themselves in the researcher's eye.

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Self-deception positivity

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A form of social desirability bias in which respondents provide generally honest, but overly optimistic, information about themselves that generates a positive impression of them.

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Acquiescence

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In survey research, the tendency to agree with the assertion of a question, regardless of its content.

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Optimizing

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The tendency of respondents to search for the best response to a question.

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Self-Selected Samples

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In survey research, a nonrandom, biased sampling technique in which people choose to participate in the research rather than being selected by the investigator.

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Hidden Population

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Population of interest that are hard to study because the people in those groups are engaged in activities that may be embarrassing or illegal (e.g. drug users) so they do not want to be recognized as members of that population

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Chain-Referral Method

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A set of sampling techniques that relies on people who know about a population or are members of the population to gain access to information about the group

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Snowball Sampling

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A chain-referral sampling technique in which one person from a population of interest identifies another person from the population to a researcher who contacts that second person, then that new individual refers yet another person, for as many stages as desired by the researcher.

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Key Informant Sampling

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A sampling technique that relies on getting information from people who about a population of interest rather than from member of that population themselves.

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Targeted Sampling

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A sampling technique that relies on finding locations that attract members of the population of interest and getting information from these people at such locations

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Respondent-Driven Sampling

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A sampling technique in which a researcher uses a member of the population of interest to actively recruit others, often with some incentive like money for engaging in this recruiting.

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Correlational Study

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An approach to research that involves measuring different variables to see whether there is a predictable relationship among the variables.

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Prediction Study

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A correlational study in which the goal is to predict the value of one variable given the level of another variable, with the predictor variable often occurring before the criterion variable rather than simultaneously.

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Criterion Variable

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In a prediction study, the variable that an investigator is trying to predict

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Predictor Variable

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In a prediction study, the variable that an investigator is trying to predict using another variable.

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Correlational Analysis

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A statistical approach used in research that uses any of a variety of correlational tests, regardless of whether the research is a correlational study of not.

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This Variable Problem

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In correlational studies, the problem in assessing cause and effect is due to the fact that when two variables are correlated, an outside (or third) variable is responsible for any causation.

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Directionality Problem

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In correlational studies, the problem in assessing cause and effect when to variables are correlated when a researcher does not know which of the two variables has a causal effect on the other.

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Positive (Direct) Correlation

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A relation between two variable that when the value of one variable increases, so does the value of the second variable, and when the value of when variable decreases, so does the value of the second.

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Negative (indirect) correlation

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A relation between variables such that when the value of one variable increases, the value of the second decreases.

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Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

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a bivariate, correlational measure that indicated the degree to which two quantitative variables are related.

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resitcted range problem

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in a correlational analysis, the failure to spot a real relationship between variables because the range of cores on at least one of the variables obscures that relationship.

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Heterogeneous Subgroup Problem

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In a correlational analysis, the appearance of a positive correlation in an overall data set and a negative correlation in subgroups or vice versa.

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Bivariate Correlation

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A correlational analysis relating only two variables

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Zero-Order Correlation

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A correlation analysis involving two variables

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Higher-order Correlation

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a correlational analysis involving more than two variables

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Multivariate Statistics

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Statistical Approaches that can accommodate simultaneous analysis of multiple variables

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Multiple regression

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A correlational technique that employs more than one predictor variable to estimate the value of a criterion variable.