Speech & Voice Science Test 1

Front 1

Speech Science attracts diverse fields and approaches including:

Back 1

Phoneticians, Linguists, Psycologists, Engineers, SLP's
*Speech is a new field that is made up of the above fields.

Front 2

Hermann Von Helmholtz

Back 2

*Psycologist interested in acoustics of speech-experimented in how air resonantess based on cavities w/different shapes
*Blew Air across open bottles with different amts of liquid (small cavities=high sound, large cavities=low sound)
*Used hollow glass globes with 2 openings to alaylze frequency components
*Held tuning forks in front of mouth and changed mouth shape to change frequency

Front 3

Von Helmholtz Contributions:

Back 3

*Air escaping through vocal folds are acoustic source of sound. Source Filter Theory-source sets air into motion, filter makes air act in a certain way (impedance). Vocal tract is a filter. Change source but keep filter=different pitch.
*Harmonics of voice are resonated in the pharynx and oral cavities
*Vowels are recognized because of these distinctive resonances

Front 4

Henry Sweet

Back 4

*Teacher of English pronunciation (like Henry Higgins)
*Interested in descriptive phonetics (phoneme=bunch of letters that represent certain sounds, like all S is same until it becomes the Sh sound)
*Took Visible Speech System and adopted a transcription system (how to categorize sounds)
*Contribution:
-Idea that a character can represent a group of similar sounds (phoneme)
-Symbol system eventually led to IPA

Front 5

R.H. Stetson

Back 5

*Physiologist and psychologist
*Much of research involved nature of the "syllable" (obsessed). CV, VC-stressed, hard to define
*Spent much of career developing and refining objective methods for measuring movements of respiratory mechanisms and articulators. Thought syllables had something to do with movement of the chest. Silly theory, but gave us technology and way to directly measure speech articulators.

Front 6

R.H. Stetson's Contributions

Back 6

*Early technology for measurement of air flow and articulator movement (palatography-where tongue hits palate)
*Strict methodology used in speech research. His was the first research on speech acoustics and articulation problems.

Front 7

Homer Dudly

Back 7

*Pioneer in speech synthesis (originally by electrical currents)
*Invented VODER demonstrated at the 1939 World's Fair
-the VODER was a gigantic device (1/2 a room) that made speech sounds. very complicated. It's hard to make natural speech sounds coarticulation. Near impossible to program speech.

Front 8

Franklin Cooper, Alvin Liberman & Pierre Delattre

Back 8

*Engineer, Psycologist & Linguist
*With sounds spectrogram invented, asked if "reverse" of sound spectrogram could aid in study of speech perception.
*Developed pattern playback
*Could ask questions such as:
-"what is the role of context in perception of individual phonemes?"
-"what is the role of linguistic experience on speech perception?"
-did this by playing back sounds without certain acoustic features. People ignore higher frequencies and pay attention to lower.
*We can speak 20+ sounds per second. No other body part can do this.

Front 9

Alexander Grahm Bell

Back 9

*How air vibrates in cavities, like a tuning fork in the oral cavity.
*Liked to goof around with things. Made phone, but important research for deaf.

Front 10

Where are we now in Speech and Voice Production?

Back 10

*Some aspects are difficult to directly measure
*Study of acoustics of speech remains ahead of study of speech physiology, though there have been amazing strides in technology and ability to measure and analyze speech
*Speech perception research continues to branch out (infant perception, animal...memory, attention...)
*Still a lot to learn.

Front 11

Chain of Events Leading to Speech Sound Production (Neuro)

Back 11

*Nerve impulses
*Muscle contractions
*Movements
*Altered cavity shapes
*Air pressure changes
*Sound
(neurons make the muscles move and we can move the articulators. utilize air)

Front 12

Nervous System

Back 12

Consists of:
*CNS=brain and spinal cord
*PNS=cranial nerves and spinal nerves

Front 13

Brain, Spinal Cord and Nerves are Composed of:

Back 13

Neurons

Front 14

Neurons

Back 14

*Each neuron generates its own electrical activity upon adequate stimulation
*all or none principal of firing
*If stimulus reaching neuron is at or above threshold, membrane surrounding axon becomes more permeable, allowing Na+ to enter
*As each point along the axon is depolarized, next point is stimulated.

Front 15

Velocity of Impulse Depend Upon:

Back 15

*Diameter of nerve fiber
*Myelinization
-myelin coats axonz
-periodic discontinuities of the myelin expose the axon
-impulse skips along from one exposed area to the next at a high velocity

Front 16

Conduction from Neuron to Neuron

Back 16

*Neurons converge and diverge in bultiple interconnected paths
*Chemicals released at the synapse either facilitate firing or inhibit firing

Front 17

Speech Control in the CNS

Back 17

*Left hemisphere dominant for speech in most people
*Left hemisphere controls movement and sensation on the right side of the body
*Brocca's area-speech production (frontal)
*Wernicke's area-understanding speech (temporal)

Front 18

Disorders Due to Brain Injury

Back 18

*Aphasia-language disorder, expressive or receptive. Nothing is wrong cognitively, just language.
*Dysarthria-neuromotor issues. can't make muscles do what you want. Weak muscles, and slurred speech. nasality. Pronunciation doesn't change.
*Apraxia-neuromotor issues. Inconsistant pronunciation of speech sounds. Motor planning and coordination problems. Things break down as more words are learned. Observed if asked to say a long sentence. Childhood apraxia-grow out of.

Front 19

Why are There Disorders Due to Brain Injury?

Back 19

*Speech production can be interrupted by a single electrical stimulation to the brain. However, a single stimulation never results in a spoken word.

Front 20

Spoonerisms

Back 20

*Evidence for "pre-planning" speech
*Speakers must hold an extended speech phrase at some stage of "readiness"
*Prior to motor impulses to muscles of speech, some neurophysical mechanism must exist in the planning stage.
(hard to explain processing and pre-planning. Just happens)

Front 21

Neuromuscular Diseases

Back 21

*Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
-myelin sheath surrounding nerve axon is progressively destroyed
-results in loss of muscle function
*Mucltiple Sclerosis
-Myelin destruction
-Less predicatble in course and severety
*Myasthenia Gravis
-Nerve-muscle junction is destroyed as a result of an immune system response
-Weakness and loss of muscle range due to inability of the nerve and muscle to communicate

Front 22

Coordination of respiration and phonation

Back 22

*Have respiratory pressures and forces, now they need to be converted from air into audible speech (upper vocal tract constrictions, phonation)
*Motor commands for phonation and respiration must be coordinated (glottis must open quickly before thoracic cavity can expand, vocal folds must close at point of expiration for voicing)

Front 23

The Larynx Position & Function

Back 23

-sits below pharynx, above trachea
-Non-speech airway protection & pressure valving
-Speech-vocal fold vibration

Front 24

Vocal Fold Vibration

Back 24

*Aerodynamic forces
-subglottal air pressure
-Bernoulli effect
-Rapid rate

Front 25

Structure of the Larynx

Back 25

*Hyoid bone
*Cartilages
-Thyroid Cartilage
-Cricoid Cartilage (ring-like, narrow anterior arch, tall/broad posterior wall)
-Arytenoid cartilages (small irregular pyramids, forward projecting angle (vocal process), lateral projecting angle (muscular process)).

Front 26

Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx

Back 26

*Cricothyroid Muscle CT
*Lateral Cricoarytenoid Muscle LCA
*Posterior Cricoarytenoid muscle PCA
*Interarytenoid Muscle IA
*Thyroarytenoid Muscle TA

Front 27

Cricothyroid Muscle CT

Back 27

-On outer surface of larynx in two parts: oblique and vertical.
-Upon contraction, anterior arch of cricoid cartilage elevates and posterior wall lowers. Vocal folds lengthen and tense.

Front 28

Lateral Cricoarytenoid Muscle LCA

Back 28

-On either side connecs upper lateral border of arch of cricoid cartilage with anterior surface of muscular process if arytenoid cartilage
-Upon contraction, muscular processes of arytenoid cartilages are pulled forward and vocal processes move medially to approximate (adduct) and slightly tense the vocal folds.

Front 29

Posterior Cricoarytenoid muscle PCA

Back 29

-On either side run from external surface of cricoid posterior wall to posterior surface of muscular process of arytenoid cartilage.
-Upon contraction, muscular processes of arytenoid cartilages are retracted. vocal folds open (abduct)

Front 30

Interarytenoid Muscle IA

Back 30

-Posterior midline muscle consists of two parts
~transverse complex running between posterior surfaces of arytenoid muscle
~Paired oblique complexes running from tip of muscular process of each arytenoid to apex of other arytenoid
-Upon contraction, arytenoid cartilages adduct to complete glottal closure partiall accomplished by LCA muscle

Front 31

Thyroarytenoid Muscle TA

Back 31

-Forms large part of vocal folds
-Upon contraction of medial vocalis fibers, vocal folds shorten and thicken

Front 32

Neurology of Phonation

Back 32

*Primary cranial nerve supplying laryngeal region=Vagus Nerve X
-First branch: Superior laryngeal nerve (Innervates CT muscle)
-Second branch: Inferior (recurrent) laryngeal nerve (Innervates all other interinsic muscles: LCA, PCA, IA, TA

Front 33

Respiratory Tract

Back 33

*Nasal passages or mouth and pharynx
*Trachea
*Within thorax, trachea divides into two bronchi
*Bronchi penetrate and become part of either lung
*There are further divisions and eventually they become alveoli

Front 34

Inhalation

Back 34

*When surplus CO2 or need for O2, medulla sends nerve impulses to muscles in thorax
*Many cervical nerves converge to form Phrenic Nerve, which innervates the diaphragm
*When stimulation reaches threshold, diaphragm contracts (flattens)
*While diaphragm flattens, nerve impusles also sent via intercostal nerves to External and Internal Intercostal muscles
*These muscles contract to elevate and expand ribs, therefore increasing volume of thoracic cavity
*Volume increase results in relative decrease in air pressure, so air rushes in

Front 35

Exhalation

Back 35

*Muscles of inhalation relax
*Compression decreases volume of thorax, thus increasing relative pressure on air within the thoracic cavity, therefore air flows out of the lungs

Front 36

Breathing for Speech-Inhalation Differences

Back 36

*Volume of air taken in is greater (additional muscles may augment diaphragm and intercostals)
*More voluntary control over breathing
*Inhalation takes up less of respiratory cycle (40% during quiet breathing, and 10% during speech breathing)

Front 37

Breathing for Speech-Exhalation Differences

Back 37

*Supplemented by active muscle control (passive forces are not enough to support speaking)
*Muscles of inhalation are active to slow down exhalation
*Additional muscles may be active to force extended exhalation (abdominal muscles)
*Volume of air exhaled is greater
*Duration of exhalation is greater

Front 38

Breathing for Speech in General

Back 38

(breath in faster, exhale slower. *Use more vital capacity of lungs. 10% during normal breathing, 25% during speech
*It involves pre-planning of breath to get through phrases.

Front 39

Neuromotor Action of Respiration

Back 39

*Motor Control
*Sensory Feedback
-Proproiception by stretch receptors in walls of alveoli (sensory nerve impulse carried to medulla via Vagus nerve X, inhibitory messages sent to inhalation muscles)
-Chemical sensitive nerve centers, chemoreceptors, within walls of some arteries (Monitor CO2 concentration in blood adn compare to body's O2 requirement, if body needs to increase O2 supply the rate and/or depth of inhalation increases)