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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is the confirmation bias?
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the tendency to search for information that confirms ones preconceptions
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what is belief perseverance?
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the tendency to maintain beliefs, even after they have been discredited
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why does belief perseverance occur?
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the explanations that we have come up with to support our beliefs survive.
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what are the three steps of a self-fulfilling prophecy?
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1. perceiver develops false beliefs about a target
2. perceiver treats target in manner consistent with flase belief 3. target responds to the treatment in such a way as to confirm the originally false belief |
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what are the heuristics?
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a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments
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why do we use heuristics?
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for shortcuts when thinking, enables quick, efficient judgments
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what is the availability heuristic?
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a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their of availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume t to be commonplace.
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how does the availability heuristic relate to false consensus?
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everyone shares the same opinion as yourself, misconception
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how does it relate to the base-rate fallacy?
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people see someone win the lottery all the time on TV, therefore they think more people win then actually win.
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what is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
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A process in which people make an estimate of some value by starting from an initial value (an anchor) and adjusting.
-Adjustment is often insufficient. |
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what does it mean to say that adjustment is often insufficient?
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we usually don't go to far from the anchor when predicting an answer.
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what is the representativeness heuristic?
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the tendency to assume that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling a typical member
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what is an illusory correlation?
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Perception of a relationship where none exists.
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how can these heuristics and biases explain why people believe in the myth of the hot hand?
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we tend to remember instances that support our belief, we seek info that confirms our initial hypothesis.
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what are attribution theories
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theory of how people explain others behavior.
example by attributing it either to internal dispositions or to external situations. |
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what is the difference between an internal and an external attribution?
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internal attribution is your disposition, attitude, personality and external attribution depends on the situation, circumstance, aspect of the environment.
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what is Kellys attribution theory?
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concept in social psychology addressing the processes by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events;
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what is the difference between "consensus," "distinctiveness," and "consistency?"
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-consensus; the extent to which others act similarly to the person whose behavior is being explained. Do (or would) most people behave the same way in this situation?
-distinctiveness:the specificity of the person's behavior to a particular situation. Does this person behave this way in other situations as well? -consistency-the extent to which someone acts similarly on different occasions. Does this person behave this way in all situations of this type? |
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what does it mean to be high or low on these?
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-If high in consensus, high in distinctiveness, high in consistency, then attribution is external.
-If low in consensus, low in distinctiveness, high in consistency, then attribution is internal. |
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how does answering questions about consensus,distinctiveness, and consistency lead to an attribution?
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.
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what pattern of responses lead to an internal attribution?
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low consensus, low distinctiveness, and high consistency.
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what pattern of responses lead to an external attribution?
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If high in consensus, high in distinctiveness, high in consistency, then attribution is external
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what is the fundamental attribution error? does it exist more in individualist cultures or collectivist cultures?
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The tendency for observers to underestimate the situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on people’s behavior. it exists more in individualist cultures in the West.
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what are some reasons why we exhibit the Fundamental Attribution Error?
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-limited capacity processors
-behavior is more salient than the situation -people do not understand how situations affect behavior -people are mentally lazy |
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what is the actor-observer effect?
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we observe others from a different perspective than we observe ourselves; in some experiments this has led to differing explanations for behavior.
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how do attributions relate to the over-justification effect?
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people do what they want intrinsically, but if you pay them to do something they already like you make them look at their actions as externally controlled rather then intrinsically appealing.
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what are some implications of the over-justification effect?
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-Rewarding children for good grades
-Coaching. |
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what are the 3 components of attitudes?
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1. affect
2. behavior 3. cognition. |
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how can attitudes be measured?
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(IAT) Implicit Association Test
-self Report -Physiological responses |
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what are some problems associated with measuring attitudes?
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they are subject to outside influences
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using classical conditioning, explain how people may learn attitudes. other than through learning, how else do we form attitudes?
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-if we are hit every time we do something wrong, we will learn quickly not to do the that action.
-attitudes are also formed by operant conditioning, observational learning |
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do attitudes always predict behavior? Under what circumstances do attitudes predict behavior?
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-No.
-Attitudes will predict behaviors better if they are both measured at the same level of specificity |
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if you wanted to predict wether teenagers will begin to smoke in the next two years, how should you measure attitudes? (in other words, how do you make sure that the attitude will predict behavior?)
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-social influence and strength of attitude
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what is cognitive dissonance?
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discrepancies between attitudes and behavior produce aversive arousal.
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what are the 3 types of dissonance that we discussed in class?
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how can dissonance be reduced? be able to provide examples.
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-change attitude
-change behavior -reduce perceived choice |
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describe the first cognitive dissonance experiment (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). How did this experiment demonstrate that people experience cognitive dissonance?
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people where given a dull task, and then asked to tell the next participant how fun it is. some for $1 and some for $20. study showed that having insufficient justification for their actions, the $1 people would experience more discomfort (dissonance) and thus be more motivated to believe in what they had done.
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how does the idea of sufficient vs insufficient justification relate to the theory of cognitive dissonance? how does punishment relate to cognitive dissonance?
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-sufficient justification: You acted contrary to your attitudes for a tangible reason
-insufficient justification: You acted contrary to your attitudes for no tangible reason You have to convince yourself that your behavior was not inconsistent with your attitudes Change attitude to match behavior -5-year olds were told they would be punished for playing with a toy Severe threat or mild threat Kids in mild threat condition like the toy less than kids in severe threat condition |
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from a cognitive dissonance perspective, why do we come to like what we suffer for?
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we have to believe that all the pain was for a good reason.
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from a cognitive dissonance perspective, why do difficult decisions seems like obvious ones after the decision is made?
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-Once people make a tough decision (between two equally-appealing options), they tend to convince themselves that they made the best decision.
-we have to have the best stuff |
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what are the four components that are necessary to experience cognitive dissonance? why is each one necessary?
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1) Behavior must produce negative consequences
2) Feeling of personal responsibility E.g., negative consequences were foreseeable and freely chosen 3) Physiological arousal 4) Attribution of arousal to own behavior Not to external cause. |
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how does self-perception theory explain the results of cognitive dissonance experiments?
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People who saw themselves lie for $20 attributed the lie to the money, not to their attitude
People who saw themselves lie for $1 attributed the lie to their attitude, not to the money (why would they lie for only $1?) |
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what are the basic differences between cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory?
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Cognitive dissonance explains attitude change as a means to reduce arousal created by behaving contrary to our attitudes.
Self-perception theory explains attitude change as an inference of observing our own behavior. |
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under what circumstances is each of these theories applicable?
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When discrepancy between behavior and attitude is large, people feel cognitive dissonance
When discrepancy between behavior and attitude is small, people infer their behavior through self-perception |
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what is the auto-kinetic effect? how does it relate to Sherif's study of conformity? What did Sherif's study find?
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-the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark.
-A change in beliefs of behaviors as a result of real or imagined group pressure. -people eventually all had same results |
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how did Asch's conformity study extend the finding of Sherif's study? Be able to describe the Ash conformity study. What were the results of this study?
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-people would conform sometimes even though they where wrong.
-one standard line and three comparison lines where on a board, 7 participants, only one real participant, they went around the room comparing the lines incorrectly and the participants conformed 76% of the time at least once. |
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what are the two reasons why people conform? can these reasons explain why participants in Sherif's and Ash's experiments conformed?
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1.normative influence
2.informational influence -yes they can explain why they conformed in Sherif's and Ash's experiments. |
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what did the "Johnny Rocco" experiment demonstrate?
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it demonstrated that people like to associate with people of similar values and thoughts. conformists.
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what factor affect conformity? how do they affect conformity?
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-The person-Culture, Self-monitoring, Self-esteem
-Unanimity-1 dissenter dramatically reduces conformity Group Cohesion- The more important the group, the greater the conformity |
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how does the idea of mindlessness relate to persuasion?
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-Many decisions are made without careful thought
-We are often be persuaded by unimportant variables. ex: skipping line to use photcopier |
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what is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
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dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed
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1. What are the two routes of the ELM?
2. What is the difference between the 2 routes? |
1. peripheral route and central route
2. peripheral focuses on simple cues present in a situation and central focuses on information relevant to the message. |
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what would lead someone to be persuaded along one route, but not the other?
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1. involvement
2. need for cognition 3. culture |
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If you are trying to persuade someone, what sorts of cues would you use if your audience was primarily using the peripheral route? the central route?
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1. peripheral route; humor, fluency, length of argument.
2. central route; argument quality, logical coherence |
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what characteristics of the audience lead people to be persuaded along one route or the other?
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1. western or eastern cultures
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what characteristics of the source lead people to be persuaded along one route or the other?
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1. expertise
2. trustworthiness |
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1. what is the sleeper effect?
2. how does it relate to persuasion? |
1. a delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a non-credible source
2. through time when we forget where the source came from, (i.e high or low quality source) thus mixing up our information, and information becomes more persuasive. |
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know how to interpret the various graphs I showed while discussing the ELM.
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check
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how do these graphs relate to the ELM?
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1.if the graph is showing peripheral route, then it will show a big gap in the low involvement column and a small gap in the high involvement column.
2. if the graph is showing central route/Need for Cognition, then it will show a big gap in the high involvement column and small gap in low involvement column. |
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How can they be used to determine whether people are relying on the peripheral or central route to persuasion?
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by examining the gap margin of high and low involvement.
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do frightening messages work at persuading people? what about messages that produce positive emotions?
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yes frightening messages do work towards persuading people.
yes positive messages do work towards persuading people that tend to think with the peripheral route, you can the environment the audience receives the messages to make you more persuasive. (i.e. nice music, candy, drinks, food) |
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how do the following relate to the persuasiveness of a message: -discrepancy, one-sidedness vs two-sidedness, timing of the messages
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1. discrepancy; depends on the credibility of the communicator whether or not people will discredit the person even if the message is the same.
2. one-sidedness vs two-sidedness; One-sided is better if: Audience already agrees Audience is not aware of opposing views If either of these situations do not hold, two-sided arguments are better. 3.timing of the messages: primacy vs recency: -if two candidates are speaking right after another with no "time" break then the first message will be the most memorable. (primacy) -if there is some delay between messages then we find that the last message is more commonly picked. (recency) |
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can subliminal messages affect behavior?
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have NO effect on behavior - but people perceive that their behavior changed.
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how does attitude inoculation lead people to resist persuasion attempts? how does this relate to psychological reactance?
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-weak arguments increases later resistance to that argument, even if its stronger.We have time to think of arguments refuting the argument.
-people are motivated against threats to their freedoms by perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive. (i.e. don't write on the bathroom wall, people will want to write on the wall more) |
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how is compliance different from persuasion and conformity?
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compliance is when someone tells you to do something and you just do it, vs persuasion you have to be talked into doing something, and conformity is when you settle to the norm around you.
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what are the 6 compliance principles we discussed in class? how can you use them to increase compliance?
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1. Reciprocity- "treat others as they treat us"
2. Commitment & Consistency-once the commitment is made people tend to feel pressure to behave consistently. 3. Social Proof- tip jars put your own money to show the illusion that people are tipping you, to receive actual tips. 4. Liking-be liked and people will do more for you 5. Scarcity-make opportunities more valuable by reducing the availability of the opportunities 6. Authority-become a person of the law or high authority and people will comply with you whether or not you are in the right. |
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what is the door -in-the-face technique? how does the door-in-the-face technique relate to the principle of reciprocity?
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-its when you make a large request knowing that all you really want is the next request you are going to make, which is a much smaller request in comparison.
-you can get people to comply with your request by making an unreasonable request, then come back later with a smaller request. this shows that you are compromising and they will give you what you really want. |
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how does the principal of commitment and consistency relate to cognitive dissonance?
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once we make a commitment to someone, we feel pressure to behave consistently to our behaviors. We do not like inconsistent we want to follow through.
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what are two techniques that increase compliance that are based on the principle of commitment and consistency?
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1. foot in the door technique
2. low balling |
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how does social proof relate to conformity?
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if the bartender has a tip jar with tips in it, you are more likely to conform and also add tips in the jar.
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when does social proof work?
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when the perceived behavior is being performed by others in your similar situation. this happens because of uncertainty and similarity.
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how can social proof be manipulated to increase compliance?
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adding your own money to a tip jar to give the impression that people are tipping you, this will make you gain more tips.
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what determines who we like?
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1.physical attractiveness
2. similarity 3. familiarity |
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what is the halo effect?
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thinking that because someone is attractive that they are also have other redeeming qualities and can do no wrong.
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what is the mere exposure effect?
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tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.
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how can the latter explain why we prefer our mirror image over our actual image?
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we cannot see the image our friends see, only the image that we see in the mirror everyday. Thus we tend to like what we look like in the mirror as opposed to what our friends see.
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why do we like things that are scarce?
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opportunities seem more valuable to us when they are less available
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how does this relate to psychological reactance?
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we want what we cannot have. works for 2 reasons;
1. scarcity implies social proof (everyone needs it) 2. we hatee to lose an opportunity we once had. |
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how does scarcity relate to social proof?
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if something is scarce this implies that a lot of people have it, thus making you want to have it more. so when you get the item you are complying with social proof.
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describe Milgram's obedience studies. how did they measure obedience ?
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they had a learner and a teacher. the experimenter would tell the teacher to provide electric shock to the learner for every wrong answer. voltage would go up little by little as high as 450 volts this would measure the teachers obedience to the experimenter.
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what were the results of the studies? how did the results compare to what people predicted?
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the results where that more teachers where more obedient to shocking the learner, then previously thought to be. 65-70% where obedient.
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what were the conclusions of these studies?
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conclusions are the no learner was actually harmed, they where never shocked, the teacher actually experienced more stress, but still not enough to harm him or her.
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what factors affect obedience?
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1. victims emotional distance
2. proximity of authority and legitimacy 3. credibility of authority 4. liberating effects of a disobedient fellow participant |
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how did Milgram determine what factors influenced obedience?
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1.participants acted with greatest obedience and ease compassion when the learners could not be seen.
2.physical presence of the experimenter mattered, if the experimenter gave the commands by telephone the obedience dropped to 21% 3.the higher the prestige of the University the more obedience was shown. 4. when the teacher had 2 other teachers with him, he continued with the obedience. but when the 2 defied the experimenter he the teacher liberated himself as well. |
