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87 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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stereotype
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- a belief that associates a group of people with certain traits
- ex: blondes are ditzy, blacks have rhythm |
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prejudice
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- negative feelings toward others based solely on their membership in a certain group
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social categorization
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- the classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes; helps us form impressions quickly and use past experiences to guide new interactions
- serious drawback: overestimates the differences between groups & underestimates the differences within groups |
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Ingroups vs. Outgroups
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- strong tendency to divide people into ingroups and outgroups
- consequences: Exaggerate differences between ingroups and other outgroups; Outgroup homogeneity effect |
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discrimination
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- behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group
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Why Are Outgroups Seen As Homogeneous?
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- often do not notice subtle differences among outgroups because have little personal contact with them
- often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members |
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Why are some categorizations more likely to dominate our perceptions than others?
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- sociocultural factors influence what types of categorizations dominate perceptions of others
- motivational factors can also affect how people categorize others |
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Entity Theorists
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- See groups in terms of traits
- Expect more similarity and consistency within groups - Process information about groups similarly to how process information about a single person |
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Incremental Theorists
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- Less likely to see a group in trait terms
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Are Stereotypes Ever Accurate?
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- Even when based on reality, tend to exaggerate differences and understate similarities between groups
- Stereotyping is a dynamic process |
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Illusory Correlations
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- The tendency for people to overestimate the link between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated
- Tend to overestimate the association between variables when: the variables are distinctive & the variables are already expected to go together |
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Attributions
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- Attributional biases can perpetuate stereotypes
- If expectations are violated, more likely to consider situational factors |
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Subtyping and Contrast Effects
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- Stereotypes stubbornly survive disconfirmation through “subtyping.”
- If behavior varies considerably from expectations, the perceived difference may be magnified; contrast effect |
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Confirmation Biases
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- Stereotypes can cause a perceiver to act in such a way that the stereotyped group member really does behave in a stereotype-confirming way; the stereotype creates a “self-fulfilling prophecy”
- ex: “Do you think a blue-eyed father would kick his son?” ; “What color eyes did George Washington have?” |
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Realistic Conflict Theory
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- The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources
- The competition for resources may be more imagined than real; People may become resentful of other groups because of a sense of relative deprivation; Even if one doesn’t feel personally threatened, perceptions of threat to one’s own group can trigger prejudice |
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racism
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- prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background
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Where Racism Exists
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- At the individual level (any one can be racist toward anyone else)
- At the institutional and cultural levels (some people are privileged while others are discriminated against) |
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in-group favoritism
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- The tendency to discriminate in favor of in-groups over out-groups
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out-group derogation
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- Violence, Friendships
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
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- Performance on specific tasks
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Robbers Cave Study
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- Competition between the two groups of boys led to hostility and conflict. Only through superordinate goals was peace restored between the two groups.
- Simplest explanation for many intergroup conflicts is competition. |
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Modern Racism
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- A subtle form of prejudice that surfaces in direct ways whenever it is safe, socially acceptable, or easy to rationalize
- Based on idea that many people are racially ambivalent - Can lead to subtle, often unconscious forms of prejudice and discrimination |
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The Implicit Association Test (IAT)
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- Method of detecting and measuring implicit racism (and other prejudices)
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Costs of Attributions of Negative Feedback to Discrimination
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- The attribution may be inaccurate.
- One misses an opportunity to learn information relevant for self-improvement. - Although it can protect one’s overall self-esteem, it can also make people feel as if they have less control over their lives. - This can make the person feel worse, not better. |
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stereotype threat
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- the fear that one will be reduced to a stereotype in the eyes of others
- Can affect any group for which strong, well-known negative stereotypes are relevant in particular settings. - Whether one feels threatened or emboldened by a stereotype depends on which social identity has been activated. - One does not need to believe in a negative stereotype for it to have an effect. |
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How can stereotype threat hamper academic achievement?
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- The reactions to the threat can directly interfere with performance.
- The threat can cause individuals to dismiss the domain as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity. |
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Allport’s contact hypothesis
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- Under certain conditions, direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice
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Sexism
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- Prejudice and Discrimination Based on a Person’s Gender
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Hostile sexism
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- characterized by negative, resentful feelings about women’s abilities, values and ability to challenge men’s power
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Benevolent sexism
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- characterized by affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing feelings of women needing and deserving protection
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Ambivalent Sexism
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- Consists of two elements: hostile sexism, benevolent sexism
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What is an Attitude?
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- a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation of a person, object, or idea expressed at some level of intensity
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Attitude Scale
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- a multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person’s attitude toward some object
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Format of a Typical Five-Level Likert Item
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1.Strongly disagree
2.Disagree 3.Neither agree or disagree 4.Agree 5.Strongly Agree |
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Bogus Pipeline
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- a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions
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Observable Behavior
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- Facial Expressions
- Tone of Voice - Body Language |
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Facial Electromyograph (EMG)
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- an electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes
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The Implicit Association Test (IAT)
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- Measures the speed with which one responds to pairings of concepts.
- Based on notion that we have implicit attitudes. - Attitudes that one is not aware of having |
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Strong attitudes
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- are more likely to remain unchanged as time passes
- are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them |
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the two main reasons strong attitudes resist change
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- committment
- embeddedness |
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Commitment
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- people are sure they are correct
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Embeddedness
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- people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.
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Two Routes to Persuasion
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- central route
- peripheral route |
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Central Route
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- information-based
- Assumption that the recipients are attentive, active, critical, and thoughtful - Influenced by the strength and quality of the message |
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Peripheral Route
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- an emotion-based
persuasive effort - Person does not think critically about the contents of a message - Influenced by superficial cues - Message is evaluated through the use of simple-minded heuristics. - People are also influenced by attitude-irrelevant factors. |
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What Makes an Effective Source?
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- believable sources must be credible sources
- how likable is the communicator |
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to be seen as credible, the source must have two distinct characteristics:
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- Competence or expertise
- Trustworthiness |
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two factors influence a source’s likability:
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- The similarity between the source and the audience
- The physical attractiveness of the source |
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Are longer messages better?
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- If peripheral, the longer the message, the more valid it must be
- If central, message length is a two-edged sword |
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How discrepant should the message be to have the greatest impact?
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- The most change is produced at moderate amounts of discrepancy
- An “upside-down U” relationship between discrepancy and persuasion |
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soft touches
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- People are “soft touches” when they are in a good mood
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Why Might Positive Feelings Activate the Peripheral Route?
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- A positive emotional state is cognitively distracting, impairing ability to think critically
- When in a good mood, we assume all is well and become lazy processors of information - When happy, we become motivated not to spoil the mood by thinking critically about new information |
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Cognitive Dissonance
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- Self Persuasion
- An unpleasant psychological state often aroused when people behave in ways that are discrepant with their attitudes |
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Cognitive Dissonance Model
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- Inconsistency leads to discomfort
- Discomfort motivates us to reduce the dissonance - Attitude change occurs – self persuasion |
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
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- When asked their attitudes toward the boring task: Those receiving $1 payment had come to see it as more enjoyable & those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all
- Why? Dissonance theory explains: $20 provided adequate justification for misleading another student, but $1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance - Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort. |
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The Dissonance Classic
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- figure 6.10
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Message -->
High motivation and ability to think about the message |
- Central processing, focused on the quality of the message arguments.
- Lasting change that resists fading and counterattacks |
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Message -->
Low motivation or ability to think about the message |
- Peripheral processing, focused on surface features such as the communicator’s attractiveness or the number of arguments presented.
- Temporary change that that is susceptible to fading and counterattacks |
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Postdecisional dissonance
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- the conflict one feels about a decision that could be wrong
- ex: Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are more confident their horse will win |
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We rationalize the correctness of our decision by:
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- exaggerating:
- positive features of the chosen alternative - negative features of the unchosen alternative |
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Self-Perception Theory
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- Self-persuasion through observation of own behavior
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Impression Management Theory
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- What matters is not a motive to be consistent but rather a motive to appear consistent
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Self-Affirmation Theory
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- Dissonance situations create a threat to the self
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Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to:
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- hold a more accurate view of the world
- be consistent with themselves - gain social approval and acceptance |
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Milgram Obedience Experiment
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- ordinary people can commit horrific acts (Nazi Germany)
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conformity
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- Tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms
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Sherif Study
Autokinetic Effect |
- Because of ambiguity, participants turned to each other for guidance.
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Asch Study
Line Judgment Task |
- Found self in awkward position b/c it was obvious that group was wrong.
- Conformed either b/c they thought others must be right OR b/c they didn't want others to judge them |
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Informational Influence
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- People conform because they believe others are correct in their judgments.
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Normative Influence
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- People conform because they fear the consequences of appearing deviant.
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Private Conformity
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- Changes in both overt behavior and beliefs.
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Public Conformity
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- Superficial change in overt behavior only.
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compliance
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- Changes in behavior that are elicited by direct requests.
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norm of reciprocity
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- dictates that we treat others as they - leads us to feel obligated to repay for acts of kindness, even when unsolicited
- relatively short-lived |
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Foot-in-the-Door Technique
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- person begins with a very small request; secures agreement; then makes a separate larger request
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low-balling
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- Person secures agreement with a request and then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs
- Psychology of commitment |
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door-in-the-face technique
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- Person begins with a very large request that will be rejected; then follows that up with a more moderate request
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That’s Not All, Folks!
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- Person begins with a somewhat inflated request; then immediately decreases the apparent size of the request by offering a discount or bonus
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obedience
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- Behavior change produced by the commands of authority
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Authoritarian Personality
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- Submissive toward figures of authority but aggressive toward subordinates
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Important Factors That Influence Obedience
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- Physical presence and apparent legitimacy of the authority figure
- The victim’s proximity - The experimental procedure - relief of personal responsibility for the victim’s welfare - Gradual escalation was used |
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Social Impact Theory
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- Social influence depends on three factors:
1. The strength of the source 2. The immediacy of the source to the target in time and space 3. The number of sources |
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Automatic Stereotype Activation: More Likely
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- cognitive factors (accessibility, depleted cognitive resources)
- cultural factors (popularity in culture, norms & values) - motivational factors (motivated to make inferences & feel superior) - personal factors (endorse stereotypes, high in prejudice) |
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Automatic Stereotype Activation: Less Likely
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- cognitive factors (exposure to counter-stereotypic group members & knowledge of personal info about the individual)
- cultural factors (not common stereotype in culture & norms/values that are opposed) - motivational factors (motivated to avoid prejudice, be fair) - personal factors (disagree with sterotypes, low in prejudice) |
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subliminal presentation
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a method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people don't have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them
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social role theory
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the theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women
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ambivalent sexism
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a form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings
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