Social Psychology 1

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What is social psychology?

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The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in regard to other people and how individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by other people.

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social psychology is used...

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in explaining behavior and situations: social psychologist seek to understand how individuals act in relations to others in social situations and why. (social behavior and perceptions of other people)

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when?

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A brief history of social psychology First social psych experiments:1897, Norman Triplett1913 (1880s), Max Ringleman1908 - first two major textbooks titled Social Psychology were published1930s-1950s – call to action. WWII1960s-1970s – crisis, debate

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Who? Where?

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Traditionally, social psychology has been a science of white, male, North American, middle class, educated people (both participants and researchers)Increasingly, social psychology has become cross-cultural

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Why study social psychology?

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Understanding of social psychology helps us understand issues in the social world, both big and smallWe frequently attempt to understand social world using intuition, which is often wrong

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disposition

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internal factors, such as beliefs, values, personality traits, and abilities, that guide a person's behavior.

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fundamental attribution error

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the failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behavior, and the corresponding tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions on behavior.

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channel factors

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situational circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface but that can have great consequences for behavior- facilitating it, blocking it, or guiding it in a particular direction.

example: Say that you know that your favorite store is having a sale but you don't know if you have the time or money to go check it out. However they may provide a channel factor by emailing you a link to their website with all of the discount codes already applied. Now you practically HAVE to buy something

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schema

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a knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information.

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stereotype

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a belief that certain attributes are characteristics of members of a particular group.

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automatic processing

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gives rise to implicit attitudes and beliefs that can't be readily controlled by the conscious mind.

non-conscious processing occurs partly for efficiency. Conscious processing are generally slow and can only run serial. automatic processing are typically faster and can operate in parallel.

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controlled processing

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conscious processing results in explicit attitudes and beliefs of which we are aware- through these may become implicit or non-conscious over time.

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Research by_____________ comprises a significant part of the curriculums in the disciplines of business, law, education, medicine, and public health, because their research on such topics as judgment and decision making, social influence, and how people function in groups is relevant to all of those fields.

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Research by social psychologists ...

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You and your friend Saura are waiting to take a difficult test in social psychology. Both of your hearts are racing and you both have sweaty palms. You interpret these symptoms to mean that the test is threatening and scary, while Saura views this as an indication that the test will be an exciting challenge.

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You and Saura have different construals.

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While driving to the store, another driver cuts in front of you, forcing you to slam on your brakes. You immediately call the other driver a jerk and decide that he is a rude person. It doesn’t even occur to you that he might not have seen you.

You have fallen victim to the________

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Fundamental attribution error

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Studies that measured automatic and controlled processing have shown that people with low expressed prejudice toward an outgroup may reveal feelings toward group members that are ______ prejudiced as those who admit to explicit disliking of the group. However, these people were likely being _______ when they expressed low prejudice.

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Studies that measured automatic and controlled processing have shown that people with low expressed prejudice toward an outgroup may reveal feelings toward group members that are almost as prejudiced as those who admit to explicit disliking of the group. However, these people were likely being truthful when they expressed low prejudice.

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Theory of the Mind

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the understanding that other people have beliefs and desires.

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universal facial expression

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chimpanzees and humans express dominance and submission, anger, and fear through similar facial expressions.

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naturalistic fallacy

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the claim that the way things are is they way they should be.

evolutionary claims about humans behavior can also lead people to assume, mistakenly, that biology is destiny- that we are biologically predisposed to do what we inevitably will do and perhaps even should do.

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independent (individualistic) culture

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a culture in which people tend to think of themselves as a distinct social entities, tied to each other by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from other people and having attributes that exist in the absences of any connection to others.--- Western

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interdependent (collectivistic) culture

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a culture in which people tend to define themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their group and placing less importance on individual freedom or personal control over their lives. ----- Eastern

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The Methods of Social Psychology

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RESEARCH METHODS

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STAGES OF RESEARCH

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1. Identify phenomenon to study

2. Generate theory --(Integrated set of principles that predicts and explains observed events)

3. Develop hypothesis --(Testable prediction generated from theory)

4. Design and perform study-- (Observational, Correlational, Experimental methods)

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Operational definition

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Operational definition are the specific procedures for measuring a variable

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Observational Method

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Goal is typically description.

Two types of observational methods:

-Direct (participant) observation

-Archival Analyses

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Correlational Method

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Goal is to predict relationships between variables

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Correlations

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Assesses how well you can predict y from x (in other words, measures the relationship between x and y)Correlations range from –1.00 to 1.00,Correlations tell us 2 things about a relationship:Direction andStrength.

you can have:

Positive correlations – higher values on one variable correspond to higher values on another variable

Negative correlations – higher values on one variable correspond to lower values on another variable

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Experimental Research

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Goal is to establish a causal relationship.Experiments may take place in laboratories or in the field.

Key elements include: manipulation, control, and random assignment

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To test causal hypotheses adequately, an experiment must have two essential ingredients:

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1. control over independent variables and extraneous variables

2. random assignment - participants have equal chance of being in any of the experimental conditions

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random assignment

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-Random assignment is the “great equalizer”

-Ensures that, on average, there are no pre-existing differences between the participants as a function of condition

-Allows us to infer cause-and-effect relationships between independent and dependent variables in an experiment

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third variable

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A type of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others.

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what are the elements of an experiment?

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-independent variable= What the experimenter manipulates.

-dependent variable= the outcome variable; the participant’s response

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__________ psychology is the psychology of perception, which attempts to understand how people automatically or non-consciously perceive forms or objects

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GESTALT psy

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Related to social psychology is the field of __________ psychology, which is the study of how people think about and view the world. This aspect of psychology involves studying the way we process, categorize, or remember words or things.

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cognitive psychology

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TRUE or FALSE:

If the probability of achieving the finding is .05, or 1 in 20, it is considered to have statistical significance.

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True

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Social psychologists can demonstrate _______ by telling a fact to group A and asking them if they could have predicted it, and then not telling the fact to group B and asking for their predictions.

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hindsight bias

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Participants in social psychology and medical research projects governed by IRBs must give______ consent, except in some studies, which use _____. In this case, the researcher must show the IRB why it is necessary to delay informed consent until after participation.

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-informed consent

-deception

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Internal validity

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the confidence with which we can be certain that the independent variable in an experiment caused the effects obtained by the dependent variable

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External validity

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generalizability (to other people and situations)

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why is it important to repilicate studies?

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...

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basic ethical guide lines

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-Informed Consent

-Freedom from Coercion

-Protection from Physical and PsychologicalHarm

-The Risk-Benefit Rule

-Debriefing

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The following are required to be found among the members of a university institutional review board (IRB)

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• One person not connected to the institution

• A scientist

• a non-scientist

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Determine weather the following statement matches with the concept of experimental research or correlational research:

Investigators has no control over the level of a particular participants score on a given variable

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correlational research

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Determine weather the following statement matches with the concept of experimental research or correlational research:

People are randomly assigned to different conditions or situations.

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experimental research

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Determine weather the following statement matches with the concept of experimental research or correlational research:

Researchers simply determine if a relationship exist between two or more variables.

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correlational research

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Determine weather the following statement matches with the concept of experimental research or correlational research:

This type of research lets investigators make strong inferences about how different situations or conditions affect people’s behavior

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experimental research

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Determine weather the following statement matches with the concept of experimental research or correlational research:

This type of research involves independent variable and dependent variable

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experimental research

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Determine weather the following statement matches with the concept of experimental research or correlational research:

In this type of research, we can never be sure about causality.

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correlational research

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Which of the following conditions must be met for a study to have internal validity?

a. Random assignment

b. An experiment setup that is realistic and believable by participants

c. Debriefing participants in the pilot study to gain some insight as to their understanding of the experimental design

d. Conducted using field experiment

e. More than one variable that produces the results

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A,B,C.

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Which of the following statements can be correctly applies to the reflection exercises called thought experiments used by social psychologist?

a. They can be useful in situations where testing a proposition would be too expensive or unethical.

b. They are critical-thinking exercises in which you think through how you would test a particular hypothesis before testing it or instead of testing it.

c. They can allow researchers to form new hypotheses that are preferable to their initial speculations.

d. They are useful in tools in avoiding hindsight bias

e. They are only used in situations where an idea cannot be tested for some reason.

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A,B,C

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Scatterplot A shows a perfect negative correlation between coffee consumption and exam grade; the more coffee the student consume, the lower their exam scores. The other four scatterplots shows positive correlations between coffee consumption and grade; the more coffee the students consume, the higher their exam scores. These correlations are all of different strengths, and scatterplot E shows a perfect positive correlation.

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Cultural definitions of the Self

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The West (individualist cultures)-Self as independent emphasizes the virtues of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance.

The East (collectivist cultures)-Self as interdependentemphasized the virtues of interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony.

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Influence of Cultural Orientation on Self

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Individualistic cultures: People strive for personal achievement.Tendency to overestimate own contributions to team effort; take credit for self and blame others for failure.

Collectivistic cultures: People derive more satisfaction from the status of the valued group.Tendency to underestimate own role and present self in more modest, self-effacing terms in relation to other members of the group.

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Gender differences in self?

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-Women’s self-concept tends to be more interdependent than men’s

- Among adolescents and young adults, males outscore females on various general measures of self-esteem.

-But difference is very small, particularly among older adults.

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Where does our knowledge about ourselves (self-concept) come from?

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1) From others – reflected appraisals

2) Social comparisons

3) Observing our own behaviors

4) introspection?

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How well do we know ourselves?

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Correlations between the way we see ourselves and the way others see us is weak.strong correlations between the way we see self and the way we think others see us. Perceived appraisals from others contributes to our self-concept.

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Social Comparison Theory(Festinger, 1954)

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Key Principles:

1. We want to evaluate our own opinions and abilities - to be accurate

2. When we can't be objective, we compare to others

3. We seek to compare to similar others

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Self-Perception Theory(Bem, 1972)

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We learn about our feelings by observing our own behavior; we may make attributions about ourselves based on our behavior . Particularly when internal cues are weak or ambiguous

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Overjustification Effect

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when rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation

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2-Factor Theory of Emotions

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We will determine what emotion we feel based on environmental cues 2 factors determine emotions: physiological arousal, cognitive label

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Limits of introspection

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Introspection is not very accurate.Many of our mental processes are outside our awareness. People come up with logical sounding theories to explain their feelings and behaviors

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Hazards of Introspection

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People who analyze the reasons why the have a particular attitude (e.g. why they like their dating partner) show a lower correlation between their attitudes and their behavior, compared to those who don’t self-reflect.

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Self-Awareness

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-A temporary psychological state

-When we focus attention on selves, we evaluate current behavior against internal standards and valuesMotivates us to change, do better…or flee from self-awareness

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What purpose does the self serve?

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Organizes the world- self schemas-Self reference effect- information is more easily recalled when it is related to the self-we show a preference for self-related information

Motivates us -drives us to be better -can buffer against stress -Self-complexity - buffering hypothesis

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Self -Control

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-We often need to exercise self-control (matching behavior to ideal standards), but this is exhausting

-Self-control is a limited resource that becomes depleted (like a muscle)

-Result: depleting mental energy (“ego depletion”) can make self-control more difficult

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Two Theories

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1. Primitive need to connect with others and gain their approval

2. Seeing oneself as a valuable member of society helps us cope with our fear of death

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What is self-esteem?

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According to Self-discrepancy theory: difference between how we see self and how we want to see self.

Actual versus Ideal and Ought Selves

-Discrepancies between actual and ought: guilty, ashamed, resentful

-Discrepancies between actual and ideal: disappointed, frustrated, sad, unfulfilled.

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So why don’t we all suffer from emotional consequences?

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1. Amount of discrepancy varies

2. Importance of discrepancy to self

3. Extent to which we focus on our self-discrepancies

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Mechanisms of Self-Enhancement

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We often exhibit implicit egotism, a tendency to hold ourselves in high regard.

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Better-Than-Average effects

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..

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Method #1: Self-Serving Cognitions

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People tend to take credit for success and distance themselves from failure.

Memory reflects self-serving distortions as well.

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Method #2: Self-Handicapping

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Why do we make excuses?

>By admitting to a limited physical or mental weakness, we protect ourselves from seeing failure as due to a lack of ability.

-Self-Handicapping: Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure.

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Method #3:Basking in Reflected Glory

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Self-esteem is influenced to some extent by those individuals and groups with whom we identify.To raise our self-esteem we often bask in reflected glory (“BIRG”) by associating with others who are successful.

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Method #4: Downward Social Comparison

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When self-esteem is at stake, we tend to make comparisons with others who are worse off.We make temporal comparisons between our past and present selves.

If we experience a tragic life event, we tend to:-Affiliate with others in same predicament who are adjusting well (possible role models).

-Compare ourselves with others who are worse off.

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Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory

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How do we react to a sibling, spouse, or close friend who is more successful than we are?

>If success is in an area not important to us, we bask in reflected glory.

>If success is self-relevant, we experience social comparison jealousy.

What if we must make upward social comparisons in an important, self-relevant domain?>We tend to overrate the other person’s ability to keep our self-esteem intact.

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Method #5: Positive Illusions

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Good mental health involves several systematic distortions

1. Exaggerating positive self-evaluations

2. Exaggerating control and mastery “Illusions of Control”

3. Unrealistic optimism( Ex: How long will you live? Ex: How likely are you to divorce?)

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Are Positive Illusions Adaptive?

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Those with the most realistic view of themselves are those who are depressed or low in self-esteem.

Help people cope with adversity.

>Downside: Positive illusions can lead to chronic patterns of self-defeating behaviors.

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The Dark Side of Self-Esteem

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Is high self-esteem a good thing?

high self-esteem does foster well-being, initiative, resilience, however…Higher than average self-esteem associated with narcissism, interrupting others, extreme ethnocentrism, gang leaders, terrorists, bullies tend to have inflated self-esteems.People who have favorable self-esteems threatened show heightened aggression.

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According to self-discrepancy theory, Eric holds beliefs not only about what he is actually like but also about what he wants to be like and how he feels he should be. Eric would like to be a good guitarist, which is part of his _____self. When Eric thinks about how his actual self is different from this self, he feels _____.Eric also thinks that he should spend more time volunteering, because it is consistent with his morals and values. This is part of his _____ self. When Eric thinks about how his actual self is different from this self, he feels ______.

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According to self-discrepancy theory, Eric holds beliefs not only about what he is actually like but also about what he wants to be like and how he feels he should be. Eric would like to be a good guitarist, which is part of his ideal self. When Eric thinks about how his actual self is different from this self, he feels sad.Eric also thinks that he should spend more time volunteering, because it is consistent with his morals and values. This is part of his ought self. When Eric thinks about how his actual self is different from this self, he feels anxious.

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One main way that we understand ourselves is through ourselves. For example, we reflect on our feelings, likes, dislikes, behaviors, and thought processes.

This method of understanding ourselves is known as _____________.

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introspection

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Neuroscientists conducted studies to determine the relationship of self-knowledge to regions of the brain. In a study, Chinese and Western European participants rated how different traits applied to themselves, their mothers, and another unrelated person.

When participants considered whether the traits applied to themselves, the ________was activated for people from_______cultures. When participants considered whether the traits applied to their mothers, people from_____ again showed activation in this brain region, whereas people from________ showed deactivation.

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When participants considered whether the traits applied to themselves, the medial prefrontal cortex was activated for people from both cultures. When participants considered whether the traits applied to their mothers, people from China again showed activation in this brain region, whereas people from Western Europe showed deactivation.

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According to ____________, we seek honest and stable self-knowledge in order to be predictable to ourselves and others, and we seek validation of our beliefs about ourselves

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self verification theory

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When people believe that they can never become their ideal selves they may experience which of the following?

• Depression• Shame• Reduced physiological arousal• Guilt• panic

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Depression, Shame, Reduced physiological arousal

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reflected self appraisal

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our beliefs about others' reactions to us.

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working self concept

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a subset of self knowledge that is bought to mind in a particular context.

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contingencies of self worth

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a perspective maintaining that self-esteem is contingent on successes and failures in domains on which a person has based his or her self-worth

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sociometer hypothesis

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the idea that seld-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which a person is included or looked for favorably by others.

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actual self

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the self that people believe you are.

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ideal self

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the self that embodies people's wishes and aspirations

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ought self

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the self that is concerned with duties, obligation, and external demands people feel they are compelled to honor.

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ego depletion

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a state, produced by acts of self control, in which people lack the energy or resources to engage in further acts of self control.

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What do schemas do?

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Help us process lots of info quickly

Help us interpret new information

Create expectations

->Priming

Organize and aid memory

->We tend to pay attention to & remember things consistent with our schemas (exception- if something is very unusual and inconsistent with schema, will remember it)

->Reconstructive memory

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Culture influences our schemas

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culture organizes the world in ways that are meaningful in the local context.

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People as “Intuitive Scientists”

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People try to understand the world around them, using information available to them.

-We rely on our schemas and heuristics

Sometimes firsthand information can lead us to wrong conclusions. Why?

->Our experiences are not always representativeWe misinterpret information from other people

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Unrepresentative Experiences

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We draw strong conclusions based on small or biased amounts of data

->Limited experience

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Misinterpreting Other People

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Pluralistic Ignorance - individuals in a group assume that most of their others are different in some way even though their behavior is the same.
>People may publicly act in ways that contradict their private attitudes
>Groups norms may not reflect individuals’ private attitudes

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Self-fulfilling Prophecy

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The process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.

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Heuristics and biases

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Availability – judge likelihood of event by ease with which it can be recalled in memory

Base Rate fallacy – ignoring information about base rates

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False Consensus Effect

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Tendency to overestimate degree of agreement with our own opinions and beliefs.Stems from the availability heuristic

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Representativeness heuristic

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We categorize things based on how similar something is to the typical example.

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Conjunction Fallacy

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,,,

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Framing

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wording changes that influence how we perceive something

-Influence on judgments based on the way identical information is presented.

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Construal Level Theory

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We can frame things as psychologically distant or near.Things that are psychologically near tend to be thought of in concrete terms; things that are psychologically distant tend to be thought of in abstract terms.

Can lead to underestimating time to complete and activity– the “planning fallacy”

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Ironic Processes

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The more you try to inhibit or suppress a thought or feeling, the less likely you are to succeed.

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Counterfactual Thinking

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When a person evaluates an actual event by considering alternative, hypothetical outcomes.

example: Olympic Medalists Study