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109 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Availability Heuristic
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Estimate likelihood based on how easily instances come to mind
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Priming
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Recent external cues and experiences can influence us without our awareness by activating particular schemas, ideas, and associations
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Below Threshold
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More information gets in than we are conscious of (short term effects)
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When does priming work?
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Only when people are already exhibiting the thought of the behavior (are they already thirsty?)
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Mere Exposure Effect
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the more one encounters a stimulus, the more we like it. mere exposure makes us like it more
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Superliminal Priming
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Perceive the stimuli but unaware of the effect it has on us
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Representativeness heuristic
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using prototypes to decide likelihood and make classifications of someone or something
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Base-rate fallacy
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we tend to ignore statistical information (probabilities & frequencies) in determining the likelihood of an event
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Anchoring and Adjustment
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We tend to use an initial starting point to make an estimate, but the adjustment tends not to be adequate (house list at a much higher price than wanted to get the buyer to offer around that point)
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Counterfactual Thinking
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Occurs when we can easily picture an alternative past, especially if it follows an unusual behavior. (we are more upset if we miss a plane by 5 mins than 50 mins, especially if we stop for coffee and we normally don't)
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Contrast Effect
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using a salient comparison can impact how we make judgements (seeing a playboy model makes men feel less attracted to their own partners)
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Framing
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80% fat free is better than 20% fat full
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When does negative framing work best?
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With detection behaviors (not doing regular checks decreases chances of being able to find the tumor early)
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When does positive framing work best?
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With prevention behaviors (wearing sunscreen everyday will decrease chances of getting skin cancer)
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Misinformation Effect
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Incorporating inaccurate information into memories, based on misleading cues from external sources
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Does mood influence our memories and how we think? How does it effect how we think?
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Yes. When happy we focus on the big picture and use heuristics. When sad we focus on details.
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Thin Slices
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with only a little information about a person, we can make fairly accurate judgements.
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Implicit Personality Theory
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The belief that certain traits, characteristics, and behaviors "go together"
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Confirmation Bias
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We look for information that agrees with our opinions and ideas
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Belief Perseverance
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Even after getting information that proves our opinion wrong we believe our opinion, and often even more so
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Illusory Correlation
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the phenomenon of seeing a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists.
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Perceptual Confirmation
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the tendency to see things in line with our expectations
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Hindsight Bias
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things seem obvious after seeing the answer
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Overconfidence Effect
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someone's subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than their objective accuracy, especially when confidence is relatively high
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Rosenhan Study
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normal people went into mental institutes saying they were hearing voices and then acted normal. Psychiatrists made up reasons for why they came to be psychotic based on their "normal" answers
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Attitude
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a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction of a thing, a person, or an idea, rooted in beliefs, exhibited in feelings and behaviors
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The ABC's of an attitude
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A- affective reaction (relatively automatic; like and dislike)
B- behavioral reactions (approach and avoid) C- cognitions (beliefs and mental perceptions |
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How do attitudes form
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Early social interactions with parents and peers.
Classical Conditioning: pairing of stimuli (can be subliminal) Operant Conditioning: reinforced behaviors (reward and punishment) Observational Learning (modeling) |
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Do Genes influence attitudes?
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Yes, done through twin studies.
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Do attitudes lead to behaviors?
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They often don't?
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Moral Hypocrisy (Batson)
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some individuals want to appear moral while, if possible, avoiding the cost of actually being moral.
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When do attitudes predict behavior?
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Stronger attitudes, More self-relevant attitudes, Direct experience, when more salient, social norms and desirability
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Are relevant or global attitudes more influential to behavior
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Specific and relevant attitudes. (Our general feeling of health will not predict if we eat McDonalds, but rather our personal attitudes about the consumption of saturated fat in fast food will.)
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Principle of Aggregation
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Average behavior over time reflects effects of attitudes more than a single behavior does. (Other influences are ignored; such as not having a recycling bin near at a specific time)
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Can behaviors affect attitudes? How?
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Yes, often times reasons follow behavior. (Split brain patient get drink then says they were thirsty after being subliminally shown a coke)
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Role
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A set of norms that defines how we ought to behave (we can become the role; Stanford Prison Experiment)
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Cognitive Dissonance
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The feeling of discomfort when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions. (Smokers believe smoking is not as harmful)
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How to reduce cognitive dissonance?
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The easiest way is to change our attitudes. Other ways include changing behavior if not already in the past or decide that it doesn't matter to be inconsistent.
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Zimbardo Grasshopper Experiment
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If the experimenter was nasty there was very little reason for why the participants were eating the grasshoppers, so they changed their attitude to say they taste good, like shrimp. While if the experimenter was nice they believed they were doing it for the sake of the experimenter and said they taste terrible. This change of attitudes was more apparent when there was no monetary reward.
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Insufficient Deterrence
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people come to internalize prohibitions against attractive behaviors when the potential punishment for engaging in those behaviors is mild rather than severe. (Don't you dare vs. I prefer you didn't)
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Effort Justification
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Effort justification is people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving. (Hazing leads members of a frat to feel more devoted to it)
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Post-decision Justification
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Right after making a choice people tend to value what they chose more, and value what they did not choose less.
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Prosocial Behaviors foster what?
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Fosters Liking (doing a favor for someone else makes you like them more)
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Water Conservationism at a school gym (Dickerson)
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When participants were both reminded of their past wastefulness and the public commitment they made, they took shorter showers.
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Self-Perception Theory
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people develop their attitudes by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it.
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Dissonance Theory Vs. Self Perception Theory
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The Dissonance Theory explains attitude change
The Self-perception explains attitude formation |
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Self Affirmation
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explains why people respond in such a way to restore self-worth when their image of self-integrity is threatened. dissonance is bad because it is arousing and uncomfortable due to self-image threat. (leads to shift in attitudes, reduction in the importance of the domain of attitude, reduce self awareness [alcohol], focus on other (positive) aspect of self. This is an alternative to a change of attitude.
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Is consistency less important in collectivist cultures or individualistic cultures? Why?
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Consistency is less important in collectivist cultures because there is more emphasis on situational influences, there is more emphasis on group attitudes, and show more dissonance with decisions made for other people and focus on what others think.
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Self affirmation is an alternative to what?
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Self affirmation is an alternative to changing an attitude.
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Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
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Describes two paths to persuasion which are Central and Peripheral
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Explain the two paths of persuasion described by ELM
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Central: focus on the arguments and details, systematic and analytic thinking (mindful). Requires both motivation and effort. (More cognitive)
Peripheral: Influences by incidental cues, uses heuristics and superficial thinking (mindless) |
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When would the central route to persuasion be used? What are the resulting attitudes like?
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Usually occurs when the "object" is important or self-relevant (motivation)
The "Target" has time/ability to think and is high in analytic thought (effort) Attitudes developed tend to be well articulated and integrated into self, persistent and consistent over time, predictive of behavior |
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When would the peripheral route to persuasion be used? What are the resulting attitudes like?
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Often more "emotional"
Occurs when the "object" is low in relevance or importance the "target" is distracted, lacking time or low in analytical thought Activates heuristic thinking Attitudes tend to be less resistant, less enduring, and less predictive of behavior |
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Langer Xerox Study
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When people cut to use the Xerox machine they were more successful when they gave a form of explanation. Example of mindless thinking.
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Cialdini's tactics of persuasion
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Liking (ex. attractive and more similar people more persuasive ), Authority, Social Proof (conformity), Scarcity (creates demand), Reciprocation (people return the favor; free samples), Consistency (already committed to a decision?; raising car price at last minute)
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Basis of Credibility in Persuasion
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Expertise (knowledge and confidence; cues: appearance, explicit references, speech, complex wording, etc.)
Trustworthiness (cues: no vested interest, not trying to persuade," willing to suffer, eye contact, focus on values) |
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"The Sleeper Effect"
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When someone is provided a credible argument their attitude tends to shift back to their original view over time, while when provided with a not so credible persuasion their attitudes tend to change more over time
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Need for Cognition
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a personality variable reflecting the extent to which individuals are inclined towards effortful cognitive activities. high NFC elaborate more, while low NFC people use more heuristics
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When is persuasion highly effective and why?
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Highly effective when it engages self-identity because people are motivated to be consistent. Saying "you are" is more effective than "you should be"
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What does a Positive mood do for persuasion
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A good mood can influence associations, also, when in a good mood people are less detail focused and more persuaded by peripheral cues
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Wheat does a negative mood do for persuasion
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fear elicits the emotion but not the behavior change. it is only effective if the danger is serious, probably, solutions, and focuses on short term consequences
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How to resist persuasion
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Forewarning: awareness and education about resistance
Reactance: focus on threat to freedoms Inoculation: target must actively defend the attitude Focus on Importance: emphasizing important values or domains |
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Epidemic Psychogenic Illness
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symptoms in a large number of people in which there is no medical explanation and often symptoms are gone within hours
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Contagion
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emotion, belief, or symptom that is rapidly spread through a crowd
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Conformity
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changing one's behavior or beliefs as a direct result of real or imagined social "pressure"
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Public Conformity
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publicly acting in accordance with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing
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Private Conformity
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acting and also changing beliefs in response to social pressure
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Compliance
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conformity that is a result of a direct request
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Obedience
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acting in a response to a direct order/command (typically by an authority figure
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Social Norms
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Shared, unspoken "rules" about behaviors in groups
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Descriptive vs Injunctive Norms
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Descriptive norms involve perceptions of which behaviors are typically performed They normally refer to the perception of others' behavior. These norms are based on observations of those around you (what is popular)
Injunctive norms involve perceptions of which behaviors are typically approved or disapproved They assist an individual in determining what is acceptable and unacceptable social behavior. (morals) (ex. Turning in a cheater morals or popularity?) |
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Informative Conformity
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ambiguous stimuli or task, use other's input as a source of valuable information if they are experts. acceptance is likely which leads to private conformity
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Normative Conformity
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clear, straight-foward task, conform to majority in order to fit in when others are likable and similar. acceptance is unlikely which leads to public conformity (based on the need to fit in)
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Autokinetic phenomena and social norms
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ambiguous task, led to informative conformity/private conformity. even more conformity if the task was of high importance
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Asch's line comparison task
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straight-foward task, led to normative conformity/public conformity. less conformity when task was of high importance
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Social Rejection/ Pain
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Social rejection hurts physically. Non-conformity in a mental rotation task lead to activity in the amygdala and caudate (emotional areas)
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What predicts conformity
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Group Size: plates at groups of three
Status: conform to higher status more Unanimity Age: adolescents more likely to conform Gender: women more conforming Motivation: task importance Culture: collectivists see conformity as more positive than individualists |
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Social Impact Theory
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"closeness" matters in conformity
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Cohesion in conformity
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the "togetherness" of a group, the "we" feeling leads to more conformity
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What Predicts Compliance?
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Similarity (even birthdays), Reciprocity and Consistency, Scarcity (deadlines & hard to get)
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Foot-in-the door
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start with a little request and then build up for compliance
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That's-not-all
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give bonus or discount to get compliance
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Door-in-the-face
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start with a large request that is denied and then ask for something smaller for compliance
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Lowballing
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tack on hidden costs for compliance
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The Chameleon Effect
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people tend to mimic what others are doing in order to be more likable. people with higher empathy mimic more because they are paying more attention. these are not conscious or deliberate actions
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Mirror Neurons
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neurons that fire when engaging in an action and when viewing another engage in the same action. helpful in language development and learning, understanding intentions, empathy and theory of mind
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Non Conformists
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Reactance: acting to protect or restore sense of personal freedom when it is threatened (under 21 binge drinking & Romeo-Juliet effect)
Uniqueness: especially in individualistic cultures. we strive to gain optimal distinctiveness; not too different, but not too similar to others. |
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What % of participants obeyed authority until the end in Milgram's obedience experiment
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65% percent
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Social Influence
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the process whereby people directly or indirectly influence the thoughts feelings and actions of others (in both humans & animals)
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Who conducted the first empirical social psychology lab experiment and what was it
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Triplett
Observation: cyclists recorded faster times when racing against others than when by themselves |
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Social Influence in ants
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When alone they excavate less dirt (about 1/3 of the amount in one experiment)
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What are the two types of social facilitation effects?
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Co-action effects: individuals are all simultaneously engaged in the same activity in full view of each other
Audience effects: behaving in the presence of passive spectators |
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Social Facilitation vs. Social Inhibition
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Social Facilitation: the presence of others improves performance
Social Inhibition: the presence of others is detrimental to performance |
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Mere Presence Theory (Zajonc)
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the presence of other people as spectators or co-actors, leads to arousal which facilitates the dominant response (increases performance on well-learned tasks, but impairs performance on poorly learned tasks)
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Urinal Study
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When people stand close to you the onset of peeing is slower and the persistence of peeing is shorter
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Social Facilitation and Billiards
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Good players performance increases when there are people around, while poor player's decreases when others are around
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Choking
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Large audience and or extreme pressure can lead to too much arousal and anxiety and worsen performance even on simple tasks
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Social Loafing
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group-produced reduction of individual performance (group less than the sum of its parts)
(ex. tug of war: SS pull harder when they think they are alone) |
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Preventing Social Loafing
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make individuals accountable (punishment), make task important & appealing, belief that individual efforts have an impact, cohesive groups
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Collective Effort Model
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when individual performance is measured, motivation and effort increase
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If you could do anything humanly possible and not detected or held responsible, what would you do
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26% criminal acts, 11% sexual activity, 11% spying and eavesdropping
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Deindividuation
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abandoning social norms due to the power of the group. you lose your sense of individuality which leads to a reduction of constraints against deviant behavior (anonymity, lack of felt responsibility, arousal)
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Intimacy and deindividuation
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1 hour in room, dark or light, with others: when the room was dark people touched intentionally, hugged, and felt sexually aroused and most volunteered to return for studies without pay. However this did not happen if told they would have to meet again
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Group Polarization
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the tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than the initial position of the group majority
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Groupthink
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Group's tendency to seek concurrence, consensus, unanimity instead of trying to make the best decision (Bay of Pigs; thought we were much better than we were)
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Preventing Groupthink
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be impartial and welcome critiques, play devil's advocate, recruit a diverse group, subdivide and reunite, have second chance meeting
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Conflict
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actual or perceived incompatibility of actions or goals
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Conflicts arise from
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realistic group conflict theory: competition for scare sources
Perceived injustice or inequality Misperceptions (negative mirror-image perceptions, hostile media phenomena, simplistic thinking (2 category world) Entrapment and justification |
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Conflict Resolution
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Contact and Cooperation
Communication (bargaining: direct negotiation, mediation: 3rd party facilitates, arbitration: neutral 3rd party imposes a settlement) Concilation (GRIT: graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction) Integrative Solutions- everyone gains |
