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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Attribution Theories: Dispositions |
stable characteristics like personality traits, attitudes, and abilities |
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Attribution Theories |
describe how people explain the causes of behavior - pretty stable |
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Heider |
explanations can be grouped into two categories: personal attributions & situational attributions |
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Personal Attributions |
stable, responsible for their own acctions |
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Situational Attributions |
Traffic, car trouble, not in control |
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Jone's Correspondent Inference Theory |
People try to differ from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actor |
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People make inferences on the basis of three factors: |
Person's degree of choice, expectedness of the behavior, and intended effects of consequence of someone's behavior |
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Kelley's Covariation Theory |
People make attributions using the covariation principle |
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Three kinds of covariation are useful: |
consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency |
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Consensus |
How are other people reacting to the same stimulus? |
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Distinctiveness |
Is the person's behavior consistent overtime? |
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Consistency |
Does the person react the same of differently to different stimuli? |
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Personal Behavior |
Low consensus, low distinctiveness, & high consistency |
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Stimulus Behavior |
High consensus, high distinctiveness, & high consistency |
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Attributional Biases |
Do we really analyze behavior in a rational, logical manner? Do we really have the time, motivation, or cognitive capacity for such elaborate & mindful processes? |
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Cognitive Heuristics |
Cognitive heuristics are information-processingly rules of thumb & enable us to think quick & easy but can frequently lead to error (tylenol vs. equate) |
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Availability Heuristic |
The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind (gun-shot wound vs. diabetes) |
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False-Consensus Effect |
There is not a consensus "Everybody loves Chinese food" |
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Base-rate Fallacy |
No use of statistical info; no values or they are distorted "Shark attack" |
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Counter-factual Thinking |
Experience outcome, go back and re-access it (Olympic medals = gold, first happiest - silver, least happy - bronze, 2nd happy) |
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Self-concept |
likely influenced by cultural factors
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individualism |
one's culture values the virtues of independence, autonomy, and self-reliance |
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Collectivism |
one's culture values the virtues of interdependence, cooperation, and social harmony |
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Individualistic cultures |
people strive for personal achievement |
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collectivistic cultures |
people drive more satisfaction from the status of the valued group |
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dialecticism |
eastern system of thought that accepts the coexistence of contradictory characteristics within a single person (they don't get along) |
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self-esteem |
how you feel about your self-concept, consisting of a person's positive and negative self-evaluations |
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Leary and Baumeister |
people are inherently social animals and need for self-esteem is driven by primitive need to contact with other and grain their approval (seek or repair connections) |
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Greensberg, Soloman, and Pyszcynski's Terror Management Theory |
In groups, terror comes from things we are concerned with - their mortality, our world views provide a buffer - we don't all share the same world views and we conflict when our own world views feel threatened |
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The Need for Self-Esteem |
satisfying this need is critical to our entire outlook on life, those with positive self image = happier, more successful and vice versas |
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Gender Differences |
among adolescent and young adults, males outscore females on various general measures of self-esteem |
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Self-Discrepancy Theory |
self esteem is defined by match or mismatch - between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves |
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self-esteem determined by |
examining the differences between one's self and their self-guide (40 yr old man wants big job & family but has neither so his self-esteem is lower) |
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Self-Awareness Theory |
we are not usually self-focused, however, certain situations may cause us to become objects of our own attention -when we become more self-aware, we naturally begin to compare behavior w/ some standard and can result in a negative discrepancy |
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Coping with Discomfort |
Shape-up: by behaving in ways that reduce self-discrepancies Ship-out: by withdrawing from self-awareness (drugs, alc) |
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Self-Regulation |
a process by which we seek to control or alter our thoughts, feelings, behaviors and urges |
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Ironic Processes (Negner) |
Sometimes the harder we try to inhibit a thought feeling or behavior, the more we think about it and harder it is to not think of it (white bear) |
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Mechanisms of Self-Enhacement |
we often exhibit implicit egotism, a tendency to hold ourselves in high regard (manipulating glucose in lab to affect moods |
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Method #1: Self-Serving Cognitions |
people tend to take credit for success and distance themselves from failure |
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Self-serving bias |
(when done poorly, 90% of the fault is the teachers, but when you do well, the 90% fault is yours) |
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Method #2: Self-Handicapping |
Make excuses to protect ourself from seeing failure as due to a lack of ability, behaviors designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure |
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Method #3: Basking in the Glory of Others |
To raise our self-esteem, we often bask in the reflected glory by associating with others who are successful & we protect our self-esteem by "cutting off reflected failure" by distancing ourselves from others who fail or have lower status (choose differently for endorsing) |
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Method #4: Downward Social Comparison |
When self-esteem is at stake, we tend to make comparisons with others who are worse off |
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attitude |
a positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea expressed at same level of intensity |
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self-report measures |
measures are direct and straightforward, but sometimes attitudes are too complex for a single question |
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attitude scale |
a multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object |
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Likert Scale |
(1-5 or 1-7) rating how much you like something (very much to not at all) but doesn't express complexity |
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Bogus Pipeline |
A phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answer to sensitive questions |
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Covert Measures |
Observable behavior, facial EMG, neuroscience |
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Facial EMG |
an electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitude - smile or truth |
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Neuroscience research |
appears attitudes may be measurable by electrical brain activity |
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The Implicit Association Test (IAT) |
based on the notion that we have implicit attitudes and that one is not aware of having them - it measures the speed with which one responds to pairings of concepts (republican bias) |
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Response times |
Faster responses - something consistent |
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How Attitudes are formed |
our most cherished attitudes most often form due to exposure to attitudes of family and friends and history of rewards and punishment |
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Attitudes in Context |
theory of planned behavior = attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions |
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Factors that indicate strength |
the more well-informed in a topic, the more consistent behavior is with the attitude, how that info was acquired, strengthened by an attack against it, and are highly accessible |
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Two Routes to Persuasion |
central & periphery routes |
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Central Route |
person thinks carefully about the message and is influenced by the strength and quality of the message |
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Periphery Route |
person does not think critically about the content of the message and is influenced by superficial cues |
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The Central Route - Hovland |
persuaded when we attend to, comprehend, and retain in memory an argument |
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The Central Route -McGuire |
distinguished between the reception of a message and its later acceptance |
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The Central Route- Greenwalt |
Elaboration is an important, intermediate step |
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The Peripheral Route |
people are persuaded on the basis of superficial, peripheral cues and the message is evaluated through the use of simple-minded heuristics |
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Jack Link's Beef Jerky |
peripheral route appealing to positivity using humor |
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When ambivalent, |
choose peripheral |
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when stable, |
choose central |
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Effective source |
credible: competence or expertise & trustworthiness |
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two factors that influence likability |
the similarity between the source and the audience, the physical attractiveness of the source (what is beautiful is good stereotype) |
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argument strength matters only when |
involvement is high |
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the sleeper effect |
low-credibility source is less of an influence |
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private "inner" self |
what I think of myself is heavily influenced by social facotrs |
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public "outer" self |
social factors |
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Affect |
how do we evaluate ourselves, enhance our self-images, and defend against threats to our self-esteem (generally think positivly) |
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Behavior |
how do we regulate our actions and present ourselves according to interpersonal demands |
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Cognition |
how do we come to know ourselves, develop a self-concept and maintain a stable sense of identity |
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cocktail party efect |
Hear your name, attention shift: any self-reference |
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self-concept |
the sum total of beliefs that people have about themselves - made up of self-schemes |
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self-schema |
beliefs about oneself that guide processing of self-relevant information |
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What other animal sees self recognition? |
apes |
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looking glass self |
people are mirrors, how they respond to us, see ourselves that way |
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Where does our self-concept come from? Source 1 |
Source 1: introspection: self-knowledge though looking inward at one's own thoughts &feelings but Wilson says it can sometimes impair self knowledge (thinking you're great at something, then fail at it) |
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Other Problems w/ introspection |
can't predict future responses to emotional events, affective forecasting, overestimating the strength and duration of emotional reactions (for negative events, we do not fully appreciate our psychological coping mechanisms) |
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affective forecasting |
evaluate good news vs bad news |
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Source 2: perceptions of our own behavior |
Daryl Bem : people can learn about themselves simply by watching their own behavior, self-perception theory |
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self-perception theory |
when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain insight by observing their own behavior (in the absence of situational pressures - sandwich alone vs sandwich paid) |
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Source 3: Influences of Other People |
people tend to describe themselves in ways that set them apart from others in their immediate vicinity = the self is "relative" and we define ourselves in part by using others as a benchmark |
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Social Comparison Theory |
when uncertain about our abilities, or opinions, we evaluate self through comparisons with similar other |
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Source 4: Autobiographical Memories |
essential for a coherent self-concept, typically report more recent events than the past |
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Exceptions to the recency rule |
Reminiscence peak - tendency to remember the traditional "firsts" |
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Flashbulb memories |
serve as prominent landmarks in our autobiographies |
