Soc Psyc 2

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Natural selection

Back 1

the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations

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Evolutionary psychology

Back 2

the study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection

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Culture

Back 3

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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Norms

Back 4

standards for accepted and expected behavior

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Personal space

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the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies; it's size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us

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Gender

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in psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

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Empathy

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the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes

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Aggression

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physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone; in laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings

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Androgynous

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mixing both masculine and feminine characteristics

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Gender role

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a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females

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Interaction

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a relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)

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Conformity

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a change in behavior or belief as the result of real of imagined group pressure

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Compliance

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conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing

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Obedience

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acting in accord with a direct order or command

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Acceptance

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conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure

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Autokinestic phenomenon

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the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark

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Cohesiveness

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a we feeling; the extend to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another

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Normative influence

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conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance

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Informational influence

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conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people

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Reactance

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a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom; arises when someone threatens our freedom of action

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Persuasion

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the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

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Central route

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occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

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Peripheral route

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occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

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Credibility

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believability; a communicator that is perceived as both expert and trustworthy

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Sleeper effect

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delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it

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Attractiveness

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having qualities that appeal to an audience; an appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is more persuasive on matters of subjective preference

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Primacy effect

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other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence

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Recency effect

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information presented last sometimes has the most influence; less common than primacy effects

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Channel of communication

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the way the message is delivered - whether face-to-face, in writing, on film, or in some other way

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Two-step flow of communication

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the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others

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Need for cognition

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the motivation to think and analyze; assessed by agreement with items such as "the notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" and disagreement with items such as "I only think as hard as I have to"

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Cult

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a group typically characterized by a distinctive ritual and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a person, isolation from the surrounding evil culture, and a charismatic leader

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Sect

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spinoff from a major religion

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Attitude inoculation

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exposing people to weak attacks so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available

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Group

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two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as us

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Co-actors

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co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity

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Social facilitation

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the strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of others

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Evaluation apprehension

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concern for how others are evaluating us

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Social loafing

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the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable

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Free riders

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people who benefit from the group but give little in return

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Deindividuation

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loss of self awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad

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Group polarization

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group produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group

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Social comparison

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evaluating one's opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others

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Pluralistic ignorance

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a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling or how they are responding

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Groupthink

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the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action

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Leadership

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the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group

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Task leadership

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leadership that organizes work, set standards, and focuses on goals

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Social leadership

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leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

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Transformational leadership

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leadership that, enabled by a leader's vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence

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Prejudice

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a preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members

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Stereotype

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a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people

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Discrimination

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unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members

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Racism

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an individuals prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race OR institutional practices that subordinate people of a given race

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Sexism

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an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex

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Social dominance orientation

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a motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups

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Ethnocentric

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believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups

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Authoritarian personality

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a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of out groups and those lower in status

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Realistic group conflict theory

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the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources

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Social identity

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the we aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I" that comes from outgroup members

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Ingroup

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"us" a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity

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Outgroup

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"them" a group that people perceive as distinctively difference from or apart from their ingroup

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Ingroup bias

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the tendency to favor one's own group

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Terror management

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people's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their morality

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Outgroup homogeneity effect

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perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members; ex: "they are alike; we are diverse"

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Own-race bias

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the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race

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Stigma consciousness

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a person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination

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Group serving bias

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explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors as well as attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions

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Just world phenomenon

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the tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

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Subtyping

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accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as "exceptions to the rule"

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Subgrouping

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accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group

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Stereotype threat

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a disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

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Aggression

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physical behavior intended to cause harm

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Hostile aggression

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aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself

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Instrumental aggression

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aggression that is a means to some other end

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Instinctive behavior

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an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species

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Frustration-aggression theory

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the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress

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Frustration

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the blocking of goal directed behavior

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Displacement

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the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration; generally, the target is a safer or more socially acceptable target

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Relative deprivation

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the perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself

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Social learning theory

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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished

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Catharsis

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emotional release; aggressive drive is reduced when one releases aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression

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Prosocial behavior

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positive, constructive, helpful, social behavior

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Social scripts

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culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations

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Proximity

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geographical nearness; powerfully predicts liking

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Mere-exposure effect

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the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them

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Matching phenomenon

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the tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a good match in attractiveness and other traits

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Physical attractiveness stereotype

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the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well

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Complementarity

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the popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other

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Ingratiation

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the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor

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Reward theory of attraction

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the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

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Passionate love

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a state of intense longing for union with another; these lowers are absorbed with each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it

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Two factor theory of emotion

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arousal x its label = emotion

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Companionate love

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the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined

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Secure attachment

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attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

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Preoccupied attachment

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attachment marked by a sense of one's own unworthiness and anxiety, ambivalence, and possessiveness

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Dismissive attachment

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an avoidant relationship style marked by distrust of others

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Fearful attachment

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an avoidant relationship style marked by fear or rejection

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Equity

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a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it

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Self-disclosure

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revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

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Disclosure reciprocity

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the tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

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Altruism

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a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests

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Social-exchange theory

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the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs

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Egoism

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a motive to increase one's own welfare

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Reciprocity norm

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an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

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Social capital

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the mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network

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Social-responsibility norm

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an expectation that people will help those needing help

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Kin selection

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the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes

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Empathy

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the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes

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Bystander effect

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the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

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Door-in-the-face technique

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a strategy for gaining a concession; after someone first turns down a large request, the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request

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Moral exclusion

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the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules to fairness

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Overjustification effect

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the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

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Misinformation effect

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incorporating misinformation into one's memory of the event after receiving misleading information about it

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Reactance

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a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom