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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Aggregate
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Individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who do not see themselves as belonging together.
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Authoritarian Leader
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An individual who leads by giving orders.
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Bureaucracy
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A formal organization with a hierarchy of authority and a clear division of labor; emphasis on impersonality of positions and written rules, communications, and records.
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Category
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People, objects, and events that have similar characteristics and are classified together.
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Clique
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A cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another.
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Coalition
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The alignment of some members of a group against others
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Democratic Leader
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An individual who leads by trying to reach a consensus.
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Dyad
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The smallest possible group, consisting of two persons.
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Expressive Leader
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An individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; also known as a socioemotional leader.
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Goal Displacement
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An organization replacing old goals with new ones; also known as goal replacement.
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Group
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People who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group.
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Groupthink
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A narrowing of thought by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer and that to even suggest alternatives is a sign of disloyalty.
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In-Groups
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We all have in-groups, groups toward which we feel loyalty.
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Instrumental Leader
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An individual who tries to keep the group moving toward its goals; also known as a task-oriented leader.
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Iron Law of Oligarchy
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Sociologist Robert Michels noted that formal organizations have a tendency to become controlled by an inner circle that limits leadership to its own members. The dominance of a formal organization by an elite that keeps itself in power is called the iron law of oligarchy.
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Laissez-Faire Leader
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An individual who leads by being highly permissive.
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Out-Groups
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A group toward which one feels antagonism
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Primary Group
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A small group characterized by cooperative intimate, longterm, face-to-face associations
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Reference Group
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A group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves.
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Secondary Group
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Compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity.
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Networking
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Interact with other people to exchange information and develop contacts, especially to further one's career.
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Triad
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A group of three people.
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Voluntary Association
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Groups made up of people who voluntarily organize on the basis of some mutual interest; also known as voluntary memberships and voluntary organizations.
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Capitalist Class
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The capitalist class is also called the bourgeoisie. Means of production are what it takes to produce goods. Raw materials, satellite networks, machinery, ships and factories are examples. Workers own nothing but their ability to sell their labor for a wage.
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Control Theory
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the idea that two control systems—inner controls and outer controls—work against our tendencies to deviate
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Crime
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the violation of norms written into law
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Criminal Justice System
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the system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people who are accused of having committed a crime
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Cultural Goals
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the objectives held out as legitimate or desirable for the members of a society to achieve
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Deviance
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the violation of norms (or rules or expectations)
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Differential Association
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Edwin Sutherland’s term to indicate that people who associate with some groups learn an “excess of definitions” of deviance, increasing the likelihood that they will become deviant
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Labeling Theory
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the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others’ perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into either deviance or conformity
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Marginal Working Class
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The most desperate members of the working class, who have few skills, little job security, and are often unemployed.
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Negative Sanction
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An expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prize or a prison sentence.
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White-Collar Crime
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Edwin Sutherland’s term for crimes committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their occupations; for example, bribery of public officials, securities violations, embezzlement, false advertising, and price fixing
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Positive Sanction
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An expression of approval for following a norm, ranging from a smile or a good grade in a class to a material reward such as a prize.
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Recidivism Rate
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The percentage of released convicts who are rearrested.
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Institutionalized Means
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approved ways of reaching cultural goals
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Social Control
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A group’s formal and informal means of enforcing its norms.
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Social Order
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a group’s usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives
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Stigma
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“blemishes” that discredit a person’s claim to a “normal” identity
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Strain Theory
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Robert Merton’s term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success), but withholds from some the approved means of reaching that goal; one adaptation to the strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved system) to attain the cultural goal
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Street Crime
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crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary
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Techniques of Neutralization
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ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect (or neutralize) society’s norms
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Bourgeoisie
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Marx’s term for capitalists, those who own the means of production
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Class System
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A form of social stratification based primarily on the possession of money or material possessions
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Endogamy
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The practice of marrying within one’s own group.
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Globalization of Capitalism
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Capitalism (investing to make profits within a rational system) becoming the globe’s dominant economic system.
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Multinational Corporations
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Companies that operate across national boundaries; also called transnational corporations.
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Slavery
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A form of social stratification in which some people own other people.
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Caste System
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a form of social stratification in which people’s statuses are lifelong conditions determined by birth
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Colonialism
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the process by which one nation takes over another nation, usually for the purpose of exploiting its labor and natural resources
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Social Mobility
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movement up or down the social class ladder
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Ideology
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beliefs about the way things ought to be that justify social arrangements
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Neocolonialism
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the economic and political dominance of the Most Industrialized Nations over the Least Industrialized Nations
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Class Consciousness
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Marx’s term for awareness of a common identity based on one’s position in the means of production
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Culture of Poverty
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the assumption that the values and behaviors of the poor make them fundamentally different from other people, that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty, and that parents perpetuate poverty across generations by passing these characteristics to their children
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Social Stratification
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the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their relative property, power, and prestige; applies to both nations and to people within a nation, society, or other group
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Meritocracy
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a form of social stratification in which all positions are awarded on the basis of merit
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Proletariat
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Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production
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Anomie
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Durkheim’s term for a condition of society in which people become detached from the usual norms that guide their behavior
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Downward Social Mobility
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movement down the social class ladder
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Upward Social Mobility
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movement up the social class ladder
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Horatio Alger Myth
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the belief that due to limitless possibilities anyone can get ahead if he or she tries hard enough
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Poverty Line
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the official measure of poverty; calculated to include incomes that are less than three times a low-cost food budget
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Prestige
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respect or regard
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Status Inconsistency
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ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others; also called status discrepancy. The frustrations of status inconsistency tend to produce political radicalism.
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Culture of Poverty
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the assumption that the values and behaviors of the poor make them fundamentally different from other people, that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty, and that parents perpetuate poverty across generations by passing these characteristics to their children
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Exchange Mobility
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a large number of people moving up the social class ladder, while a large number move down; it is as though they have exchanged places, and the social class system shows little change
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Income
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money received, usually from a job, business, or assets
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Power
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the ability to carry out your will, even over the resistance of others
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Social Class
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according to Weber, a large group of people who rank close to one another in property, power, and prestige; according to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means of production or workers who sell their labor
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Structural Mobility
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movement up or down the social class ladder that is due more to changes in the structure of society than to the actions of individuals
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Wealth
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the total value of everything someone owns, minus the debts
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Feminization of Poverty
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a condition of U.S. poverty in which most poor families are headed by women
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Intergenerational Mobility
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the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next
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Power Elite
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C. Wright Mills’ term for the top people in U.S. corporations, military, and politics who make the nation’s major decisions
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Status
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the position that someone occupies in a social group
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Underclass
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a group of people for whom poverty persists year after year and across generations
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