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23 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Entman and Rojecki - Advertisements Study
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Sample:
Commercials from 1 week of primetime programming on ABC and Fox and 2 weeks on NBC. Also studied ads on MTV, BET and during sports games. Looked at contact between characters, race of characters appearing first or last in an ad, race of close-up or hand model, if character speaks to audience, and how sexuality is expressed. Results: 58.8% of commercials were all White, 11.3% all Black, 28.7% both blacks and whites, and 9.1% East Asian. No significance in stereotypical portrayals studied (only Black people playing sports and music for example) Luxury ads overwhelmingly White characters. Black character mainly in "necessity" product ads. Whites more likely to be seen talking to member of same race. White actors outnumber Black actors 5 to 1 in hand models. Whites also more likely to be first and last in ad and the close-up shot. BET = more likely to have all Black casts |
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Entman and Rojecki- Film Study (Films)
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Sample- top 3 highest grossing films in 1996 with a White dominated cast and a Black protagonist (Independence Day, A Time to Kill, Jerry Maguire).
Results: Independence Day- Racial stereotypes for laughs (drunk Latino pilot and nerdy Jewish scientist) Whites more likely to be in charge than Black characters. Will Smith's character speaks with ghetto slang and is mainly just the strong guy instead of the guy with plans. A Time to Kill- White empathy with racism shown. However, racism is cured in the movie only with White paternalism rather than Black characters solving the problem together White leads get way more close ups than Black lead. Could mean that closeups of White pain and emotion is more important than that of the Black lead. Jerry Maguire- More White paternalism and White lead shown to be most intellectual. Black female lead is more aggressive and abrasive than White female lead. (stereotypical Black female portrayal) |
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Entman and Rojecki- Film Study (Reviews)
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Sample: also looked at reviews of Jerry Maguire, Independence Day and A Time to Kill. Looked if they picked up on any racial subtext in their critique in Newsweek, Time, New York Times, and San Francisco Chronicle.
Results: San Fran Chronicle and Time somewhat chide Independence Day for racial stereotyping, but NYTimes expressly notes Jewish stereotyping with the scientist Reviewers found identity politics in Jerry Maguire funny. 3 reviews for A Time to Kill notice lack of Black perspective and the overabundance of White perspective |
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Entman and Rojecki- Film Study (Cast)
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Sample: also looked at the cast of all movies grossing more than $25 million in 1996.
Results: 496 out of 630 actors were White, 106 Black, 28 Asian/Latino/other. 19 films = exclusively White top casts. 6 exclusive Black casts. 1 exclusively Asian. 37 integrated with at least 1 non-White character in top 10 billing. Black females less likely than White females to appear in integrated casts. Mainly appear in all Black casts. |
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Mastro and Stern- Advertisements
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Design-
Looked at primetime TV ads, specifically speaking characters. Results- 83% of models in coded ads were White, 12.4% Black, 2.3% Asian, 1% Latino. Whites overrepresented, Latinos underrepresented, and Blacks proportionally represented using the 2000 Census. |
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Schuman, Steeh, Bobo and Krysan- Study on Public Opinion and Race
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Results:
looked at every survey question ever done on race and race policy and found that we've moved from deeply entrenched views in favor of segregation to a world where segregation isn't even a consideration and overt, biological racism has nearly disappeared |
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Trend of NORC, NES, and Anatomy of Racial Attitudes Surveys
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shows that biological racism dropped in relatively short period of time (from 1950s or so to 1970s-current)
also found shift in support for "social distance measures" which are measures of how willing one is to be near another race. |
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Problems with the "Positive Trend" Story
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Cohort Changes: Older people dying are being replaced by young progressive people so racism isn't necessarily being eradicated in previously racist people.
Social Desirability: People answer the question how they think they're supposed to but they don't really feel that way. Implementation: Support for principle is high, but support for implementing policies is low. |
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Only area with no racial divide (Kinder & Sanders)
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foreign affairs
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Black Utility Heuristic
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Michael Dawson's idea that African Americans are more worried about what impacts the group than what impacts them personally. This is based on the idea of "linked fate" where African Americans look at race policy and wonder how it will impact everyone in the Black community
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Sniderman and Hagen- Study on Individualism
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They have an idea that individualism can explain racism as people may be opposed to race policy because they're opposed to helping anybody, not just Black people.
Results: Majority of population believes that racial inequality is because "some people aren't trying hard enough" and that "generations of slavery and discrimination have made it hard for Black people to work their way up" They see this as evidence of Whites being individualist thus that explains their opposition to race policy Limitations/Evaluation- the questions are all about race still so it's hard to say that the respondents aren't racist. Kinder argues that there are "missing cases" of people who don't fall into their categories of individualist, progressive, fundamental or historical. People who don't fall into these are not included in the results at all which was one third of the sample. People thrown out are opposed to race policy still but not because of individualist reasons thus they are throwing out counter cases to |
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Kinder and Mendelberg - Individualism
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Found that individualism didn't impact people's opinions on giving aid to Blacks, fair employment for Blacks and college quotas for Blacks.
Individualism played bigger role in opposition to food stamps and other class policies. |
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Symbolic Racism (Sears & Kinder)
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an entire group is viewed as having the negative attributes of some of the group.
for example, African Americans are viewed as criminals by someone because they see a few Black criminals and assume all Blacks are criminals. |
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Kinder and Sanders- Individualism Study
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believe that individualism is deeply imbedded in this newer form of racism where Whites think all Black people are lazy and on welfare.
Results: Racial resentment has a big effect on how respondents answered the "individualist" questions in the study. Evaluation: Could be about policy preferences because the questions are all about policies. Could be based on ideology as that isn't controlled |
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Mendelberg- 3 Types of Messages
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1- Implicit Message: use code words and images to get the message across without explicitly saying something. Example = showing only Black people in stories about welfare.
2- Explicit Messages: overt use of racial terms. These do NOT work because they go against the Norm of Equality. The Norm of Equality is the idea that racist messages are no longer acceptable thus social desirability effects make you disregard the message if it goes against this norm. 3- Non-Racial Messages: counter stereotype messages. shows something that's against the stereotype in people's heads. |
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Mendelberg- 1988 Campaign Study
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Campaign divided into 3 phases-
Explicit phase (October 22- Election): Ad called out as racist by someone but media mainly said it was just negative campaigning. High exposure implicit phase (early October- October 22): high media attention to ad, thus it was seen by more people. Low Exposure Implicit (June-October): lower media attention to ad. Results: Racial appeals in ad were effective in low exposure phase, very important in high exposure phase, and not effective at all during the explicit phase which fits into the Norm of Equality hypothesis. |
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Mendelberg- Welfare Experiment
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Design: fake Michigan governor candidates where main issue in campaign is NAFTA and both candidates are moderates. Only variance is on welfare stance and they use either explicit, implicit, or non-racial messages.
Results: Exposure to implicit messages had biggest effect in moving people against race policy. Exposure to explicit messages had a lesser effect. Exposure to non-racial message had smallest effect. Evaluation: welfare is already racialized so this newspaper story might not be what's moving them in support of race policy. |
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Huber and Lipinski- Welfare Experiment
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replicate Mendelberg experiment.
Find that explicit messages and implicit messages prime race which runs counter to Mendelberg's theory. |
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Reeves - Voting Experiment
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found that when it's a Black candidate vs. a White candidate, it's hard for the Black candidate to win when race is primed.
exit polling in biracial campaigns shows larger support for Black candidates than actually happened because people lie to make it seem like they aren't voting based on race. Experiment Design: subjects given newspaper stories about environment or affirmative action. race of the mayor candidate varied. Results: Race didn't matter in environment story but mattered a lot in affirmative action story. Voters moved to undecided category after the Black candidate affirmative action story instead of moving to White candidate. |
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Hajnal - Informational Model
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Argues that Blacks running in a city for the first time are going to face real problems because Whites won't trust them and will think they are only going to watch out for Black community.
The Black candidate then doesn't favor the Black community in office and the Black candidate receives more White support when they run a 2nd time after these fears are calmed. |
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Tessler and Sears- Racial Resentment
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Find that race mattered in the 2008 campaign.
Support for Obama decreases as racial resentment goes up and vice versa for McCain. Support for Clinton during the primaries also increased as racial resentment increased because they saw Clinton as the "other option" from Obama Obama appealed to party ID to capture some of the racially resentful Clinton voters that were going to vote for McCain and only got 2/3 back so 1/3 still voted for McCain because Obama was Black |
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Goldman
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Mediated intergroup contact: psychology has found that intergroup contact decreases racial prejudice. Media can be that contact.
Author argues that media coverage of Obama in 2008 helps decrease racial prejudice even when it's negative portrayals on conservative TV because it's still different from the typical portrayal of Black males. |
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Tessler and Sears- Racialization
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Issues that Obama is associated with started to correlate with racial resentment like support for Obama did in 2008
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