Review Questions For Second Midterm

Front 1

What is an advantage of a physiological approach to the study of personality?

Back 1

physiology is important to the extent that differences in physiology create, contribute to, or indicate differences in psychological functioning

Front 2

Describe different types of physiological measures

Back 2

Electodermal activity, cardiovascular activity and brain activity are all different physiological measures.

Electrodermal activity measures sweat and arousal levels involving the skin. Cardiovascular activity measures heart rate and blood pressure, which can correlate to stress. Brain activity measures can involve studying frontal lobe activity in correlation to positive or negative images being displayed for the subject.

Front 3

Describe Eysenck’s theory of extraversion

Back 3

Eyesenck believed that introverts and extraverts had different baseline levels of arousal when at rest. This is now found to be false. However, Eyesenck also held that there were different levels of optimal arousal for extraverts and introverts when completing tasks, due to differences between introverts and extraverts in their sensitivity to stimuli. This is a supported claim.

Front 4

Describe three studies that supports Eysenck’s theory

Back 4

The lemon juice test (Eyesenck 1967)
Introverts salivate more when exposed to lemon juice, extraverts salivate less

The noise test (Geen 1984)
introverts and extraverts performing a task, distracting noise coming through headphones during the task, some with an extravert's preferred level of arousal, some with an introvert's preferred level of arousal
when introverts got their preferred level of arousal and vice versa, they performed better at the task

The Caffeine test (Bullock & Gilliland, 1993)
extraverts perform better and better with more and more caffeine
introverts have a bell curve more so, originally correlating like the extraverts, then petering off

Front 5

Describe Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory

Back 5

Some people predominantly are affected by behaviour activation system- they are rewards motivated to complete tasks
Some people are more motivated to avoid punishment and negative consequences than they are motivated to do things for rewards.
Anxiety, impulsivity, extraversion and stability are all related.

Front 6

What did Zuckerman show in relation to need for sensation?

Back 6

Sensation-seeking: high scorers tend to seek out ways to get more stimulation (seek out thrilling, exciting activities, take risks, avoid boredom) (1991)
Higher scores tend to seek out more stimulation, they tend to take risk to avoid boredom. More likely to take sexual risks, engage in sex activity if high on sensation seeking

Front 7

Describe the relationship between neurotransmitters and specific traits

Back 7

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is correlated positively with the approach system: higher positive emotionality, extraversion, novelty seeking, social dominance, enthusiasm, energy, assertiveness, flexible shifting among goals (or distractability), reward based learning, motivation to perform learned feats just to acquire the reward.

Serotonin has long been believed by some to be involved in anxiety or threat sensitivity, or the BIS system.

GABA receptors are related to neuroticism, the less sensitive the receptors, the more neurotic you are. People with panic disorders have lower levels of GABA receptors. Treatment involves increasing GABA to reduce anxiety.

Norepinephrine is produced in response to stress, it leads to panic reactions. Problems in regulating this chemical are related to some anxiety disorders. This finding seems to link this chemical specifically to threat sensitivity.

Front 8

What are the goals of genetic research in personality?

Back 8

The goals of genetic research are to determine genetic influence on personality.

Front 9

List and describe the various ways that researchers use to uncover the genetic basis of personality

Back 9

Selective breeding involves infering if heritability works by controlling breeding and studying the result child- unethical, family studies, twin studies , adoption studies.

Front 10

What traits have the strongest support for a genetic influence?

Back 10

Extraversion
Twins who are reared together are more genetically determined for this than twins who are reared apart, though MZ twins are still very genetically determined for this, vs. DZ

Neuroticism
Somewhat lower estimates of heritability for N compared to E
e.g., 40% for E, 30% for N
correlations between adopted children and adoptive parents close to 0
why isn't there a relationship, even just due to environment?
What aspects of the environment might play a role?

Psychopathy
Describes emotional style (e.g., high is callous), impulsivity (e.g., high is nonconforming, indifferent to social conventions), tendency to experience fear (e.g., high is fearless)
this personality trait has one of the highest heritability rates no matter who's measuring it, ~75 – 80%
a) Extreme callous- unemotional / .67
b) Exteme antisocial behaviour with psychopathic tendencies /.81
c) Extreme antisocial behaviour without psychopathic tendencies /.30

Front 11

What are other aspects of personality that have been shown to have a genetic basis?

Back 11

alcohol (inheritance doesn't show up with light alcohol use, but with alcoholism, particularly in men)

smoking (Australia, if MZ smoked, twin 16x more likely. If DZ smoked, 7x more likely)

sexual orientation (yes, some evidence this has a genetic component)

Front 12

Using examples, distinguish between shared vs. non-shared environment
Which matters for personality?

Back 12

Non-shared environment matters for personality- it is how twins differ to some degree in their personality. Examples of a non shared environment include differences in friend groups. While a shared environment might be having parents who have the same attitudes toward both people.

Front 13

What evidence is there that there is a direct link between personality and genes?

Back 13

Some traits are heritable, which tells us that genetics affect what personality traits are developed. The heritability of some traits is statistically significant, and provides ample evidence.

Front 14

How might genes and environment interact?

Back 14

Certain temperaments an individual has that have come from their genes can change the way they interact with the world around them. An example of this is how an introvert vs. an extrovert differ in how they may respond to the same set of parents, or how they may respond to the same socializing.

Front 15

What are adaptations? by-products of adaptations? noise or random variation?

Back 15

Adaptations are Inherited and reliably developing characteristics that came into existence through natural selection because they helped to solve problems of survival or reproduction during the period of their evolution

by products of adaptations are Characteristics that do not solve adaptive problems and do not have functional design, they are “carried along” characteristics that do have functional design because they happen to be coupled with those adaptations

Noise or random variation is Random effects produced by forces such as chance mutations, sudden and unprecedented changes in the environment, or chance effects during development

Front 16

According to an evolutionary approach, what are some psychological mechanisms all humans share?

Back 16

The human nature level describes traits and mechanisms that are typical of our species
Helping
Need to belong (social anxiety)
universal emotions

Front 17

Why are men more aggressive than women (according to evolutionary perspective)?

Back 17

More competition among men for female mates, since females must be choosy, mating comes with high energy costs.
Men have inherited from their successful ancestor psychological mechanisms that lead to aggression under specific circumstances

Front 18

Describe sex differences in terms of jealousy and desire for sexual variety

Back 18

Men over evolutionary history ave risked investing in children who were not their own

Men should be more jealous in response to cues to a sexual infidelity

Women become more distressed over a partner's emotional infidelity

Front 19

What two kinds of mating strategies are evidenced in women?

Back 19

Restricted- prefers long term relationships, less partners

unrestricted- prefers short term relationships, more partners

Front 20

What are the limitations of an evolutionary perspective?

Back 20

The expanse of time involved

Just scratching the surface of understanding the nature, details, and design features of evolved psychological mechanisms

What was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive in the present

There can be different and competing evolutionary hypotheses for the same phenomena

Hypotheses have been accused of being untestable and therefore unfalsifiable

Front 21

Is evolutionary theory a good theory of personality?

Back 21

It's questionable in terms of its validity- but is still a possible explanation for phenomena. A benefit of it is how much it encompasses many levels of personality analysis, human nature, sex and individual differences.

Front 22

Describe the process of classical conditioning

Back 22

responses that are acquired by associating one stimulus with another
basic elements:
stage 1 (existing reflex)
stage 2 (pairing of stimuli)
stage 3 (developing of CR)
stage 4 (completed conditioning)

Front 23

Describe the process of operant conditioning

Back 23

Operant conditioning is conditioning in which a behaviour becomes more likely becamse it's followed by a desirable event or less likely because it's followed by an undesirable event.

This involves an behaviour occuring, the behaviour leading to a better or worse state of affairs, and then a corresponding increased or decreased probability of doing the behaviour again.

Front 24

How is classical conditioning different from operant conditioning

Back 24

Classical conditioning is passive and begins with reflexes being paired with stimuli. Operant conditioning is active and begins with studying what outcomes an initial behaviour leads to.

Front 25

Discrimination and generalization are complementary processes, describe what they are and how that might work

Back 25

Discrimination involves responding in a different manner to different stimuli. Generalization involves responding in a similar manner to somewhat different stimuli. Both processes can work together. Generalizing helps you handle new situations using remembered situations that were similar to the new one. Discrimination helps you understand when a certain behaviour leads to a certain action and when it does not.

Front 26

Describe different schedules of reinforcement

Back 26

Fixed interval- reinforce at a fixed interval
fixed ratio- reinforce after a specific number of responses
variable interval- intervals between reinforcement varies
variable ratio- number of responses before reinforcement varies

Front 27

How might strict learning theorists assess personality?

Back 27

As a systematic conditioned set of responses to the subject's environment.
Perhaps they would view personality as something that can be changed through different conditioning, not necessarily permanent and totally inherent

Front 28

Describe token economies, how they work, and their limitations.

Back 28

A reward system often used in psychiatric hospitals to help old the behaviour or patients by rewarding them with tokens for doing behaviours like making their bed or taking their pills on time, the tokens could only be used within facilities. This was found only useful while the patients were in the hospital because when they were released, no token economies were available for them to use and they did not continue the behaviors they had learned.

Front 29

What is learned helplessness?

Back 29

Theory about how animals (including humans) learn to become helpless in the face of threat and pain

Front 30

Peterson and Seligman were interested in the beliefs people hold that may lead to learned helplessness. Describe how beliefs might lead to learned helplessness

Back 30

People may believe that a situation they are in is unchangeable, a challenge may seem unsurmountable. Even when a solution is provided, they cannot acknowledge it unless they are presented with it by someone else.

Front 31

Which is more effective, punishment or reinforcement, why?

Back 31

Reinforcement is more effective because even avoidant behaviours can be learned through reinforcement. Even when someone is avoiding punishment, it is because that behaviour is reinforced by the reduction of pain from the punishment. Reinforcement can include both positive and negative reinforcement styles, both of which serve to increase a behaviour.

Front 32

Describe Dollard and Miller’s theory of personality?

Back 32

Drive reduction constitutes reinforcement (e.g. avoidance/escape reduces anxiety and maintains phobias; concept also explains 'repression')

Front 33

Describe the strengths and limitations of learning approaches

Back 33

Strengths:
Systematic research
Role of environment
pragmatic approach to treatment
parsimonius
reliable measurement

Limitations:
no room for constructs
potentially artificial

Front 34

What are expectancies?

Back 34

Outcome expectancy- A judgment about how likely a specific behaviour is to attain a specific goal.
Efficacy expectancy- Confidence of being able to do something successfully

Front 35

What is locus of control?

Back 35

Whether an individual thinks that their life is mostly controlled by external or internal forces.

Front 36

Describe Bandura’s notion of self-efficacy

Back 36

Bandura believed that people often knew what it was they had to do to improve or change a situation. He found that knowing what to do was not enough- one also had to be confident of being able to do the behaviour required of you. The confidence of having the ability to carry arout a desired action is what Bandura termed efficacy expectancy, or self-efficacy.

Front 37

What are the processes involved in observational learning

Back 37

Occurs when one person performs an action, and another person observes and thereby acquires the ability to do the action.

Front 38

What is reciprocal determinism?

Back 38

An individual affects their environment, and the environment affects the individual. There is a constant interplay between individual forces and environmental forces. Theory by albert Bandura