(Research & Stats)

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RESEARCH/STATS

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CATEGORY

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suicide in adolescence - influence of 1 or 2 parent home

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girls and boys from single-parent families are both at higher risk than girls and boys from dual-parent families

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separation test

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helps determine factitious disorder by proxy

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amphetamine, cocaine, and phencyclidine withdrawal

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can produce psychotic sx that can last for weeks or longer despite removal of the drug & tx with an antipsychotic

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Weber's Law

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- "just-noticeable difference" in a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the original stim.

-This is why a whisper is audible in a quiet room but not in a noisy room.

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implicit memory

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-memory that is automatic or effortless

-not affected by age and by most conditions that affect explicit memory, such as Korsakoff's

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flex schedule has biggest influence on

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absenteeism

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To calculate a confidence interval of 95%

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-multiply the standard error of measurement by 1.96 and add and subtract the result from the examinee's score.

-if SEM is 5, then add and subtract 10 from person's score

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item difficulty

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the probability that an examinee with a given level of the ability measured by the test will answer the item correctly

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pregnancy rates among females aged 15 to 24 are currently the highest for

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African Americans

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women with the highest lifetime rate of domestic violence

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American Indians

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TBI and perf on the WAIS

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Processing Speed affected the most, followed by working memory

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4-day work week has a positive influence on...

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supervisor ratings of employee performance, employee overall job satisfaction, and employee satisfaction with the work schedule

- no impact on absenteeism or objective measures of performance

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interrupted time series design

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-single-group design

-the DV is measured at regular intervals before and after the treatment is applied.

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chi square test is sensitive to...

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-sample size

-large samples produce a significant effect even when there is a small difference between the proposed model and the obtained data.

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children in day care

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-high-quality early child care is associated with enhanced pre-academic (cognitive) skills and language at age 4-1/2.

-But, higher disobedience, aggression, and other behavioral problems

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ipsative

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compares an examinee’s scores on several scales to his/her own performance or preferences

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AA service utilization

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compared to EAs, African-Americans have lower rates for outpatient services but higher rates for public inpatient services

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Sternberg's model of IQ

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componential, experiential, and practical

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Berscheid and Walster's (1974) two-factor theory of love

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love is physio arousal and a label for it

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According to Sternberg, optimistic people

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make external, specific, and temporary attributions for negative events

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James Lange Theory of Emotions

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-emotions are perceptions of bodily reactions

-emph the role of visceral and muscular reactions

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Fathers of kids with ADHD

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tend to rate their children’s behaviors as less problematic than mothers do

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Expectancy theory: work motivation depends on three beliefs

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expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

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Beck's diathesis stress model: diathesis is...

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dysfunctional attitudes

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inoculation

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-reduce a listener's susceptibility to a persuasive message.

-warning the listener of the impending persuasive message; making a weak attack against the listener's position; and having the listener actively defend his/her position

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Catharsis aggression model

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-aggressive impulses "build up" inside an individual and must be released and that such release reduces the risk for future aggression

-not well supported

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confirmation bias

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tendency to seek or pay attention only to information that confirms our beliefs

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extinction burst

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temporary increase in behavior that occurs when reinforcement is removed

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multiple baseline design

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useful when you want to avoid having to control (remove) an effective treatment during the course of the study

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Sherif: 3 categories of judgment

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latitude of acceptance, latitude of non-commitment, and latitude of rejection

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According to Rutter, increase resiliency by:

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Reducing risk impact, reducing negative chain reactions, promoting self-esteem and self-efficacy, and providing opportunities

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false recollections are assoc with lesions where?

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frontal lobe

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inter-rater reliability

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-correlate the scores assigned by two or more raters (the kappa statistic)

-calculate percent agreement.

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Buckley Ammendment

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parents have the right to inspect and review their children's school records and challenge the contents of records

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successful mastery modeling

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due to guided practice and early success

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Tarasoff applies to

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clearly identifiable person or to a class (group) of persons

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Maslow's hierarchy

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Physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization

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Baumrind: authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive.

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-permissive parents: kids are "impulsive-aggressive."

-authoritative parents: kids are "energetic-friendly."

-authoritarian parents: kids are "conflicted-irritable" i.e., fearful, moody, easily annoyed, and aimless.

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According to the Cleary (1968) model, test bias is evaluated by

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-comparing the test's regression lines for members of different groups

-According to the Cleary model, if a test has the same regression line for members of both groups, the test is not biased even it if has different means for the groups.

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Berscheid's (1989) "emotion-in-relationship" model predicts

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-long-term partners are more likely than newly-weds to underestimate their emotional investment in a marital relationship

-Disruptions in organized sequences of behavior (established behavior patterns) and the resulting emotional response are mor

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Compared to EAs, how to Asian Americans respond to meds?

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require lower doses to obtain the same therapeutic effects and experience more severe side effects from the same dose

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Speed accuracy tradeoff

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when teaching complex motor skills that require both speed and accuracy for successful performance, the best strategy is to initially emph speed over accuracy

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Virginia Satir's approach to family therapy emphasizes

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styles of communication:

placater, blamer, super-reasonable, irrelevant, and congruent

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What did Griggs vs. Duke Power Company Establish?

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A court case (1971) impacting testing in the workplace -- measures of broad abilities cannot be used to make decisions for hiring and promotion,

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What is Adverse Impact?

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occurs when the percentage of minority applicants selected for a particular job is less than 4/5ths of the percentage of non-minority applicants who are selected for the same job,

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What is unfairness?

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"Occurs when minorities and non-minorities score differently on a predictor test yet perform the same on the criterion (graphically, looks like two parallel lines)",

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What is differential validity?

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When a test is more valid for predicting performance for one sub-group than it is for another -- rarely a problem.,

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What is a job analysis?

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"specific component tasks performed by workers on a particular job (i.e. tools, equipment, education & training needed, wages etc..)",

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What is a job evaluation?

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A formal analysis of what a specific job is financially worth to an organization,

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What is the critical incident technique?

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this term refers to outlining/defining the specific actions that lead to desirable and undesirable consequences on the job,

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What is the standard application, the weighted application blank, and the biographical inventory (BIB)

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"Three ways of gather biographical info (1) most common type of application (fill in the blanks) (2) another fill-in-the blanks, but variables are assigned weights that affect the hiring process (3) more detailed biographical information, specifically correlated with desirable/undesirable work beahviors",

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What are the pros and cons of BIBS?

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BIBs are good predictors of job success & turnover! But costly and time consuming to develop,

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What employee selection method has the WORST criterion related validity?

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Interviews,

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What can be done to improve the validity of interviews?

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"Structure them, have multiple interviewers and train interveiwers to reduce biases",

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What are some major interviewer biases?

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"first impression, negative information, the contrast effect, interviewer prejudices",

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What is the first impression bias?

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The term for the tendency of the interviewer to be swayed by their initial impression of a candidate,

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What is negative information bias?

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the tendency for one or two negative pieces of information to negate strenths or accomplishments,

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What is the contrast effect?

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the tendency for a interviewer to rate someone more positively if they are interviewed just after an underqualified person (and vice versa),

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What is the Halo effect?

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generalizing from one characteristic about a person in a positive or negative direction,

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What techniques are used in the Assessment Center?

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In-box technique and Leaderless group discussion,

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E.g. nominal scale

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sex
eye color
DSM diagnosis
religion
i.e. unordered categories

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E.g. ordinal scale

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likert scale
i.e. categories and rank order

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E.g. interval scale

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IQ scores
temperature
i.e. rank order and equal intervals
can add & subtract

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E.g. ratio scale

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# calories consumed
reaction time
i.e. rank order, equal intervals AND absolute zero
can multiply & divide

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Cumulative frequency

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total number observations that fall at or below each score

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Kurtosis

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the relative peakedness of a distribution
more peaked = leptokurtic
more flat = platykurtic

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Skewed distribution

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more than half observations fall on one side of distribution
positive = low score
negative = high score

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Measure of central tendency

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mode (Mo)
median (Md)
mean (M or X)

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Relationship bet measures of central tendency in skewed distributions

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positively skewed d:
mean, greater than
median, greater then
mode
negatively skewed d:
mode, greater than median, greater than mean

median, greater than

mean

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Measures of variance

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range
variance
standard deviation

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Def: variance

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a measure of variability calculated by dividing the sum of squares
SS / n (population)
SS / n-1 (sample)

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Def: standard deviation

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square root of the variance
a measure of variability of scores around the mean
SS / n - then take square root

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Re: Inferential statistics,



What is a sample statistic used for

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to estimate a population parameter

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Sampling error

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random error responsible for diff bet sample values and population

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Sampling distribution of the mean

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distribution of means obtained if large number of equal-size random samples are drawn from same population

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3 predictions of Central Limit Theorem

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1. as sample size increases, sample distribution of mean approaches normal distribution
2. mean of sampling distribution of the mean = population mean
3. SD of sample distribution of the mean = population SD divided by square root of sample size

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Def: Standard error of the mean



What does it measure

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SD of sampling distribution of the mean
variability due to effects of random error

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What happens to standard error when

1. SD larger & sample size smaller
2. SD smaller and sample size larger



2. SD smaller & sample size larger

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1. SE larger
2. SE smaller

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2-tailed vs. 1-tailed hypothesis

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2-tailed = nondirectional
1-tailed = directional

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rejection / critical region

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region of unlikely values
lies in one or both tails of sampling distribution
values occur as a result of sampling error

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retention region

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region of likely values
lies in central portion of sampling distribution

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What happens to hypotheses if sample statistic is in rejection region

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null hypothesis is rejected
alternate hypothesis is retained

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What happens to hypotheses if sample statistic is in retention region

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null hypothesis is retained
alternate hypothesis is rejected

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Size of rejection region defined by...

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alpha
level of significance
note: alpha = 0.05
means 5% in rejection region

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Statistical "confidence"

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certainty about the decision re: null hypothesis

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Between-group vs. within-group

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Between-group: administer different levels of IV to different groups of subject and then compare subjects on DV
Within-group: same as repeated measures: all groups get all levels of IV

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Statistical "power"

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ability to reject a false null hypothesis

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Parametric tests

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evaluate hypotheses about population means, variances etc.
e.g. t-test, ANOVA
interval or ratio scale

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non-parametric tests

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evaluate hypotheses about shape of distribution
e.g. Mann-Witney U test, Wilcoxon
ordinal or nominal scale

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degrees of freedom

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N-1 (t-test)
C-1 (chi-square)

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What information do you use to select an inferential statistic?

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scale of measurement
dependent variable
study design

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What statistical test would you use for nominal data?

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single-sample Chi-square
multiple-sample Chi-square

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What statistical test would you use for ordinal data?

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Mann-Witney U-test
Wilcoxon matched pairs test
Kruskal-Wallis test

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What are the non-parametric alternatives to:



1. independent t-test

2. correlated t-test

3. one-way ANOVA

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1. Mann-Witney
2. Wilcoxon
3. Kruskal-Wallis

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What statistical tests would you use for interval and ratio data?

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t-test
ANOVA

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Name types of t-test

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simple sample
independent samples (between)
correlated samples (within)

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Name types of ANOVA

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one-way
factorial (2-way, 3-way)
randomized block factorial
ANCOVA
repeated measures

mixed (split-plot)

MANOVA

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When use one-way ANOVA vs. factorial ANOVA?

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one-way = 1 IV
factorial = 2+ IVs

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What are the Post Hoc tests for ANOVA?

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Scheffe's S test
Tukey's HSD test
Fisher's LSD test

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Which Post Hoc test is least vulnerable to Type I Error, but more vulnerable to Type II error?

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Scheffe's
Tukey's

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Which Post Hoc test is least vulnerable to Type II Error, but more vulnerable to Type I error?

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Fisher's

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The numerator of the f-ratio is a measure of variability due to...?

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treatment effects & error

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In ANOVA, the "mean square within" provides info about:

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sampling fluctuations

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Why use one-way ANOVA instead of separate t-tests?

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to reduce Type I error rate

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How do you calculate f-ratio?

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Mean Square Between (MSB)/Mean Square within(MSW) = (treatment + error)/error

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How do you calculate MSB?

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SSB/df

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How do you calculate MSW?

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SSW/df

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Use: MANOVA

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1+ IV
2+ DV (interval/ratio)
*helps increase statistical power by assessing effects of IV on all DVs

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Ex: planned "a priori" analysis (4)

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Dunn-Bonferroni t
linear contrasts
orthogonal comparisons
trend analysis

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Axis on scattergram

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X = IV = predictor
Y = DV = criterion

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Which correlation coefficient is most commonly used with...
1. interval and ratio data
2. rank data
3. nominal data
3. true dichotomy and interval or ratio
1. artificial dichotomy and interval or ratio

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Pearson r (also Eta)
2. Spearman rank
3. Contingency (C)
4. Point-Biserial
5. Biserial

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How do you translate correlation coefficient score into something meaningful?

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calculate coefficient of determination to provide a measure of shared (explained) variability.
- square the coefficient
e.g. if coefficient is .60,
.60 x .60 = .36,
.36 x 100 = 36%,



therefore, 36% of scores on DV explained by IV... remaining 64% is unexplained variance.

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Use: regression analysis

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to predict a score on a criterion (DV) based on person's obtained score on predictor (IV).

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How do you locate a regression line

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least squares criterion

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Use: multiple regression

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2+ continuous or discrete predictors

1 criterion

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Ex: multiple regression

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1. simultaneous (simple)
2. stepwise
3. hierarchical

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When use multiple regression instead of ANOVA?

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if groups are unequal in size
if IVs on a continuous scale

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Use: canonical correlation

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[an extension of mult reg]
2+ continuous predictors
2+ continuous criterions

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Ex: multivariate techniques (4)

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multiple regression
canonical correlation
discriminant function analysis
logistic regression

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Ex: bivariate correlational techniques (2)

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scattergram
correlation coefficient

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Ex: bivariate prediction (1)

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regression analysis

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Ex: multivariate techniques (2)

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path analysis
LISREL

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Ex: correlation & prediction techniques (4 main)

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bivariate correlational techniques
bivariate prediction
multivariate techniques: correlation & prediction
multivariate techniques: causal modeling

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Use: discriminant function analysis

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2+ continuous predictors
1 discrete criterion

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Item difficulty

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P = Total number of examinees passing the item/total number of examinees
P of .5 is optimal except for T/F, where p of .75 is best

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Item discrimination

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How well item differentiates between examinees who obtain high and low scores on test

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Reliability coefficient

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Ranges from 0.0 to 1.0, higher levels = more true score variability
Interpret directly as proportion of variance that reflects true score variability as opposed to error variance

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1. Coefficient of stability

1. 2. Coefficient of equivalence

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test-retest reliability coefficient
Equivalent forms reliability coefficient

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Spearman-Brown prophecy formula

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Used for split-half reliability tests to estimate what reliability coefficient would have been if based on full length of test

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Cronbach’s alpha vs. Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR- 20)

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Use Cronbach’s alpha to estimate internal consistency for multiple-choice questions; KR-20 for dichotomous questions

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Standard Error of Measurement

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(Standard dev. Of test scores)(square root of (1-reliability coefficient))

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Multitrait-multimethod matrix

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Mono and hetero trait and method coefficients
Convergent validity: when you have high mono-trait, hetero-method coeffs.
Discriminant (divergent) validity: when you have low hetero-trait mono-method and hetero-trait hetero-method coeffs.

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1. Communality
1. Specificity

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Common variance: amount of variability in test scores due to factors that it share in common with other tests in factor analysis
Portion of true-score variability not explained by factor analysis

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Orthogonal vs. oblique rotations

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Use orthogonal when factors uncorrelated and oblique when correlated

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To determine variability in test scores explained by a factor in factor analysis

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Square the factor loadings

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To calculate communality in orthogonal rotation

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Equals sum of squared factor loadings

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Criterion-related validity coefficient

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How well predictor predicts the criterion (correlate scores on predictor with scores on criterion). Interpret by squaring the coefficient,

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Standard Error of Estimate

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Used in Criterion-related validity, Can use to create a confidence interval around predicted score. Fomula: SEE = (stand. Dev. Of criterion scores)(square root of (1 – squared validity coefficient)

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Relationship between reliability and validity

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Reliability places ceiling on validity, but high reliability does not guarantee validity. For criterion-related validity, the predictor’s validity coefficient cannot exceed the square root of its reliability coefficient

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Phonemes vs. Morphemes

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Phonemes are smallest unit of sound in language (“buh, “puh”). Morphemes are smallest unit of sound that convey meaning (“un”, “ing”)

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Rutter’s indicators

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Rutter says number of risk factors baby is exposed to is critical. Named six family risk factors: severe marital discord, low SES, overcrowding, parental criminality, maternal psychopathology, and placement of child outside home

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Effects of maternal employment

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Greater personal satisfaction for mother, fewer sex-role stereotypes for kids. For lower SES boys, assoc. w/better cog. dev., but for upper SES boys, may have lower IQ and achievement

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Latent Learning (Tolman)

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Learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in actual performance improvement—rats formed cog. maps of mazes without being reinforced.

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Thorndike’s law of effect

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When behaviors are followed by satisfying consequences, they are more likely to increase or occur again

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Slope and Intercept Bias

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Slope Bias: differential validity, predictor is more accurate for one group than other
Intercept bias: unfairness: validity coefficients and criterion performance are the same but scores on the predictor differ

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Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test

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Originally developed as measure of visual-perceptive skills but now used to identify brain damage, estimate intelligence, and as projective test. Examinees copy 9 geometric figures.

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Benton Visual Retention Test

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Assesses visual memory, spatial perception, and visual-motor skills in individuals 8 and older. Requires indiv. To reproduce drawings from memory.

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Fagan Test of Intelligence

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Based on research showing measure of info. processing during infancy are good predictors of childhood IQ. Assesses infant’s attn. to novel stimuli.

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Chaining

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Establishing sequence of responses, with each response or stimulus associated with it acting as both a secondary reinforcer for the previous response and a discriminative stimulus for following response

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Concurrent schedules of reinforcement

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There are 2 or more independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response. Organism matches relative frequency of responding to the relative frequency of reinforcement for each response

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Response Cost

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Remove a reinforcer (e.g., tokens, points) following a behavior in order to reduce that behavior

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Reciprocal Inhibition

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Counter-conditioning technique developed by Wolpe to alleviate anxiety by pairing a stimulus that produces anxiety (CS) with a stimulus that produces relaxation (US)

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Classical Test Theory

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Individual’s test score is sum of true score variability and error score variability

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Empirical Criterion Keying

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Items chosen on ability to discriminate group membership; how well MMPI items discriminated among people w/different diagnoses

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Item Response Theory

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Calculate extent to which a specific item on a test correlates with an underlying construct. For instance, a latent trait can be expressed on non-parallel measures. Used to develop individually tailored "adaptive" tests, in which an answer to one question in a domain area determines whether another question in that area will be asked.

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Research can be categorized as:
a. qualitative b. quantitative c. both a. and b.

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c. Research is the systematic study and investigation of a phenomenon in order to reveal, analyze, and establish facts, principles, and theories. The various methods of research can be categorized as qualitative or quantitative.

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True or False.
Qualitative research is conducted to obtain a holistic description of the naturalistic, contextual approach, emphasizes understanding and interpretation, and is primarily inductive in nature. The investigator's perspective is an important element of the research process.

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True. Qualitative Research is conducted to obtain *holistic* (relating to or concerned with wholes or with complete systems rather than with the analysis of, treatment of, or dissection into parts) description of the quality of relationships, actions, situations, or other phenomena. It uses a *naturalistic approach* whereby (subject(s) is/are observed without interruption under normal or natural circumstances), *contextual approach*, emphasizes understanding and interpretation, and is primarily *inductive* (ideas are processed from the specific to the general in nature).

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True or False. Quantitative research is conducted to obtain numerical data on variables. It makes use of empirical methods and statistical procedures, emphasizes prediction, generalizability, and causality, and is primarily deductive.

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True. Quantitative Research is conducted to obtain numerical data on variables. It makes use of *empirical* (capable of being verified or disproved by observation or experiment) methods and statistical procedures, emphasizes prediction, generalizability, and *causality*, and is primarily *deductive* (ideas are processed from the general to the specific).

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Quantitative research is further categorized as nonexperimental or _____.

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experimental

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Nonexperimental research is conducted to: a. to test hypotheses b. collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses c. is emphasized on the EPPP

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b. nonexperimental (descriptive) research is conducted to collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses about the relationship between them. Correlational research, archival research, case studies, and surveys are ordinarily nonexperimental.

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Experimental research is conducted to: a. to test hypotheses b. collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses c. is emphasized on the EPPP d. both a. and c.

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d. Experimental research is conducted to test hypotheses about the effects of one or more independent variables on one or more dependent variables. Experimental research is emphasized on the psychology licensing exam.

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Name the steps to Planning and Conducting Experimental Research using the acronmym: Dumb Calculations Stop-up Cranial Arterial Reasoning

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1.Developing An Idea Into A Testable Hypothesis 2.Choosing An Appropriate Research Design 3.Selecting A Sample 4.Conducting The Study 5.Analyzing The Obtained Data 6.Reporting The Results

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a _____ is any characteristic, behavior, event, or other phenomenon that is capable of varying or existing in at least two different states, conditions, or levels (e.g., gender).

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variable

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A _____ is a characteristic that is restricted to a single state or condition.

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Constant; For example, gender may be treated as a constant if only male subjects are used in the study.

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Researchers normally distinguish between two types of variables: A person's status on the _____ variable is assumed to affect his/her status on the ______ variable.

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independent; dependent

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If a psychologist conducts a research study to test the hypothesis that children who watch violent films are more aggressive than children who do not, the study's independent variable is ______.

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To answer this question correctly you would need to ask yourself, "What are the effects of (INDEPENDENT VARIABLE) on (DEPENDENT VARIABLE)?" The answer would be: What are the effects of (films: violent vs. nonviolent) on aggressiveness.

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To assess the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable, the independent variable must have at least a. one level b. two levels c. three levels

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b. two levels; The IV(s) affect(s) or alter(s) status of the dependent variable (DV); it is manipulated by the experimenter; Each IV must have at least two levels, which provides a point for comparison. Comparisons on the DV are made across different levels of the IV. When the psychologist is using only one variable as the IV, then the effects of that IV may be compared by using a self-control procedure whereby the effects of no treatment on that variable may serve as the second variable.

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The dependent variable is: a. manipulated b. measured c. left alone d. not necessary

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Dependent Variable (DV, outcome, “Y”) – status on this variable seems to “depend on” the status of another variable (the IV). It is considered the outcome of the study and is measured by pretests and posttests. This variable is not manipulated, but measured only.

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To identify the IV(s) and DV(s) in a study, translate the information into a question: What is the effect of _____ on _____ ?

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Independent Variable; Dependent Variable

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When using manipulated independent variables, the psychologist will be able to determine which levels of the IVs will be administered to subjects. However, in some studies, the psychologist cannot control the independent variables. When this happens, the IVs are considered ______ variables. a. constant b. organismic c. dependent

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b. organismic; The use of organismic (a complex structure of interdependent and subordinate elements whose relations and properties are largely determined by their function in the whole) variables also limits the study in that the psychologist will not be able to determine if any observed relationships are causal in nature.

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The IV and DV must be defined in terms of the method or process that will be used to identify or measure them. Once this is done, the variables are said to be: a. descriptively analyzed b. operationally defined c. appropriate for the study

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b. operationally defined; Each variable must be defined and measured(e.g., score on a measure such as the WAIS or use of observation).

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An important decision when using _____ to identify or measure a behavior is how to record that behavior. a. observation b. quasi experimental research c. experimental research

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a. Whenever observation is used to identify or measure behavior, an important decision is how to record or measure that behavior.

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True or False. When using observational methods to obtain measures on the DV, there are four main ways to measure variables: content analysis, behavioral sampling, situational sampling, sequential analysis.

Back 174

True.Content Analysis – organizing the data into categories; Behavioral Sampling – systematic method for sampling and recording the frequency or duration of the behavior and/or rating the behavior in terms of its qualitative characteristics; Situational Sampling – alternative to behavioral sampling, used when the goal of the study is to observe a behavior in a number of settings, helps increase generalizability of the study’s findings; Sequential Analysis – entails coding of behavioral sequences rather than isolated behavioral events and is used to study complex social behaviors.

Front 175

_____ analysis involves recording a subject's verbalizations when she has been instructed to "think aloud" while solving a complex cognitive problem.

Back 175

Protocol Analysis – subject is asked to think aloud while solving a problem. The subject’s verbalizations are recorded and coded in term of relevant categories. Protocol = (record of a document or transaction).

Front 176

_____ recording is particularly useful when the target behavior has no clear beginning or end.

Back 176

Interval recording – observing a behavior for a period of time that has been divided into equal intervals (e.g., a 30-minute period that has been divided into 15-second intervals) and recording whether or not the behavior occurs during each interval. Use for studying complex interactions and behaviors that have no clear beginning or end such as laughing, talking, or playing.

Front 177

_____ sampling is an effective technique when the behavior occurs infrequently or leaves a permanent record.

Back 177

Event Sampling (recording) – observing a behavior each time that it occurs. This technique is good for studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration, or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a completed worksheet or test).

Front 178

Experimental research is categorized as either true experimental or quasi-experimental. The primary feature that distinguishes true experimental research from quasi-experimental research is that, in the former, the experimenter can randomly _____ subjects to different treatment groups: a. assign b. rotate

Back 178

a. assigne subjects; True Experimental Research provides the amount of control necessary to conclude that the observed variability in the dependent variable is actually caused by variability in a independent variable. In order for the study to be “true experimental research”, the psychologist must be able to: ·Control the experimental ·Determine which levels of the IV to include ·Randomly assign subjects to different treatment groups (i.e., to different levels of the IV)

Front 179

Radomization of subjects to different treatment groups allows the experimenter to be more certain that subjects in different groups are initially similar and, consequently, that any observed differences between then on the _____ varible(s) were caused by the _____ variable(s): a. dependent; independent b. independent; dependent c. constant; organismic

Back 179

a. dependent; independent Random Assignment (randomization) helps ensure that any observed differences between groups on the dependent variable are actually due to the effects of the IV.

Front 180

True or False. When using Quasi-experimental Research, an experimenter can sometimes control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups.

Back 180

False. Quasi-experimental Research – experimenter cannot control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups; must use intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment group.

Front 181

When a researcher must use intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment group, s/he is doing: a. experimental research b. quasi-experimental research

Back 181

b. Quasi-experimental Research – experimenter cannot control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups; must use intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment group.

Front 182

With regard to standard sampling techniques, when using this method, every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, and the selection of one member from the population has no effect on the selection of another member: a. cluster sampling b. stratified random sampling c. simple random sampling

Back 182

b. Simple Random Sampling -Each member of population has an equal chance of being included in the sample -Selection of one member from the population has no effect on the selection of another member

Front 183

With regard to standard sampling techniques, the experiementor might want to use this method when the population of interest varies in terms of specific "strata" (characteristics) that are relevant to the research hypothesis: a. cluster sampling b. stratified random sampling c. simple random sampling

Back 183

b. Stratified Random Sampling -Use when the population varies in terms of “strata” (characteristics) that are relevant to study -Divide the population into the appropriate strata (e.g., SES, race, age, etc.) and randomly select subjects from each stratum.

Front 184

With regard to standard sampling techniques, the experimenter might want to use this method when it is not possible to identify or obtain access to the entire population of interest: a. cluster sampling b. stratified random sampling c. simple random sampling

Back 184

a. Cluster Sampling -Select units (clusters) of individuals that are relevant to study -Include all individual in those units/clusters or randomly select individuals from units/cluster (Multistage Cluster Sampling) when it is not possible to identify or obtain access to the entire population of interest.

Front 185

Exlain the difference bewteen random assignment and random selection.

Back 185

Both are important in research but for different reasons. Random Assignment – allows investigator to be more certain that an observed effect on the DV was actually caused by the IV. Random Selection – enables the investigator to generalize his/her findings from the sample to the population. It is random assignment that distinguishes true experimental research from quasi-experimental research.

Front 186

An educational psychologist believes that children are better spellers if they are provided with "spaced" practice rather than "massed" practice whiel they are learning new words. Identify the IV and DV: IV(s): DV(s):

Back 186

IV(s): types of practic DV(s): spelling ability

Front 187

Dr. Mean wants to test the hypothesis that a mastery learning technique is more effective than the traditional instructional approach for teaching college algebra but that its effectiveness is a function of a student's need for achievement and math aptitude. IV(s): DV(s):

Back 187

IV(s):instuctional method, need for achievement, math aptitude DV(s): algebra achievement

Front 188

Dr. Freud wants to compare the effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy, client-centered therapy, and psychoanalytic psychotherapy for reducing test anxiety in high- and low-achieving college students as measured by a physiological measure of anxiety and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. Identify the IV and DV: IV(s): DV(s):

Back 188

IV(s): type of therapy, achievement level DV(s): physiological measure of anxiety, Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale

Front 189

A school principal suspects that a teacher's expectations about a student's academic performance will have a "self-fulfilling prophecy" effect on the student's own expectations and actual academic achievement but that the magnitide of the effect will depend on the student's level of self-esteem. Identify the IV and DV: IV(s): DV(s):

Back 189

IV(s): teacher expectations, student self-esteem DV(s): student expectations, student achievement

Front 190

A researcher asks a sample of male and female mental health professionals to describe a "healthy male adult" and a "healthy female adult." Based on his review of the literature, he expects that the adjectives used by both male and female professionals to describe a healthy male will be more positive than the adjectives used to describe a healthy female. Identify the IV and DV: IV(s): DV(s):

Back 190

IV(s):gender of mental health professionals, gender of healthy adult DV(s): descriptive adjectives of healthy adult

Front 191

To investigate the effects of watching violent movies on aggressive behavior, Dr. Hatchet has male and female children who have been identified as either very aggressive, moderately aggressive, mildly aggressive, or nonaggressive watch either a violent or neutral film. Following the film, he observes each child during a 60-minute free play period and counts the number of agressive acts the child exhibits: Identify the IV and DV: IV(s): DV(s):

Back 191

IV(s):initial aggressiveness, gender, type of film DV(s): number of agressive acts

Front 192

An investigator compares the performance of a single group of subjects before and after exposure to an intervention. This study is a (true/quasi-) experimental study.

Back 192

quasi experimental study because experimenter could not control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups because s/he had to use an intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment group.

Front 193

Random (selection/assignment) of subjects is critical for ensuring the generalizability of research results.

Back 193

selection; Random Assignment Vs. Random Selection Random Assignment – allows investigator to be more certain that an observed effect on the DV was actually caused by the IV. Random Selection – enables the investigator to generalize his/her findings from the sample to the population.

Front 194

When a study's independent variable is an organismic variable, the study is considered to be a (true/quasi-) experimental study.

Back 194

quasi-experimental

Front 195

When using protocol analysis, an investigator is interested in: a. infrequent behaviors b. verbal reports c. historical events

Back 195

b. verbal reports; Protocol Analysis – subject is asked to think aloud while solving a problem. The subject’s verbalizations are recorded and coded in term of relevant categories. a. INCORRECT - Event Sampling is good for studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration, or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a completed worksheet or test).

Front 196

A psychologist designs a study to assess prosocial behaviors (smiling, making eye contact, etc.) in infants while interacting with caregivers. the best sampling (recording) technique for these behaviors would be: a. interval b. cluster c. event

Back 196

a. Interval recording – observing a behavior for a period of time that has been divided into equal intervals (e.g., a 30-minute period that has been divided into 15-second intervals) and recording whether or not the behavior occurs during each interval. Use for studying complex interactions and behaviors that have no clear beginning or end such as laughing, talking, or playing. b. no such thing c. INCORRECT - Event Sampling (recording) – observing a behavior each time that it occurs. This technique is good for studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration, or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a completed worksheet or test).

Front 197

The "hallmark" of true (versus quasi-) experimental research is: a. the ability to randomly select subjects from the population b. the ability to randomly assign subjects to treatment groups c. the ability to test hypotheses about the relationship bewteen variables.

Back 197

b.

Front 198

To obtain a sample of elementary school children for your research study, you randomly select several schools from the population of schools and then randomly choose students from the schools that you have selected. This is an example of: a. quota sampling b. stratified random sampling c. cluster sampling

Back 198

c. cluster sampling; Cluster Sampling -Select units (clusters) of individuals that are relevant to study -Include all individual in those units/clusters or randomly select individuals from units/cluster (Multistage Cluster Sampling) when it is not possible to identify or obtain access to the entire population of interest.

Front 199

Which of the following would be most useful for studying behaviors that leave a permanent record: a. time sampling b. situation sampling c. event recording

Back 199

c. event recording; Event Sampling (recording) – observing a behavior each time that it occurs. This technique is good for studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration, or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a completed worksheet or test).

Front 200

When conducting an experimental research study, an experimenter wants a design that will maximize variability in the dependent variable that is due to the _____, control variability due to _____, and minimize variability due to _____.

Back 200

independent variable, extraneous variables (systematic error), random error

Front 201

Experimental variability, or variability in the dependent variable that is due to the _____ variable, is maximized when groups are made as different as possible with respect to that variable, while variability due to _____ error is minimized by ensuring that random fluctuations in subjects, conditions, and measuring instruments are eliminated or equalized among all treatment groups.

Back 201

independent, random True experimental research helps an investigator minimize the effects of random (unpredictable) fluctuations in subjects, conditions, and measuring instruments. Tip! It is important to remember to pick a design that minimizes the effects of both systematic error (error due to extraneous variables) and random error.

Front 202

A number of techniques are used to control the effects of extraneous variables, which are irrelevant to the research hypothesis but correlate with the _____ variable.

Back 202

dependent Extraneous (Confounding) Variable – source of systematic error; variable that is irrelevant to the purpose of the research study, confounds its results because it has a systematic effect (correlates with) the DV.

Front 203

Randomization, or the random _____ of subject to different levels of the independent variable, is considered the most powerful method of control because it helps ensure that groups are initially _____ with regard to all known and unknown extraneous variables.

Back 203

assignment; equivalent Random Assignment of Subjects to Treatment Groups (Randomization) ·Equalizes the effects of extraneous variables ·Most “powerful” method of experimental control ·Primary characteristic of “true experimental research”

Front 204

Matching is useful for controlling an extraneous variable when the number of subjects is too _____ to guarantee that random assignment will equalize the groups in terms of an extraneous variable.

Back 204

small; Matching Subjects on the Extraneous Variable (Matching) ·Match subjects in terms of their status on that variable ·Randomly assign match subjects to one of the treatment groups ·Useful when = sample size is too small to guarantee that random assignment will equalize the groups with regard to the effects of the extraneous variable

Front 205

Blocking is similar to matching except that subjects are not individually matched but are _____ in terms of their status on the extraneous variable, and subjects within each _____ are randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups.

Back 205

blocked (grouped); block Building the Extraneous Variable into the Study (Blocking) ·Include extraneous variable as IV so that its effects on the DV may be statistically analyzed ·Subjects are grouped (blocked) on the basis of their status on the extraneous variable ·Subjects are then randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups

Front 206

The ANCOVA or other statistical technique can be used to statistically _____ the effects of an extraneous variable.

Back 206

remove, Statistical Control of the Extraneous Variable - ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) or other statistical technique to remove variability (equalizing all subjects with regard to their status on that variable) in the DV.

Front 207

When a study has _____ validity, the experimenter can conclude that observations in the dependent variable were caused by variations in the independent variable rather than by other factors: a. internal b. external c. face

Back 207

a. internal; a study has internal validity when it allows an investigator to determine if there is a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Front 208

Internal validity is threatened when the investigator cannot: a. Control the effects of the IV b. Control the effects of extraneous variables c. Minimize the effects of random error d. all of the above

Back 208

d.

Front 209

_____ refers to an external event that is irrelevant to the research hypothesis but that occurs duing the course of a study and affects the subjects' status on the dependent variable: a. history b. maturation

Back 209

a. history; History – external event systematically affects the status of subjects on the DV. History = a significant event that effects people.

Front 210

_____ refers to changes that occur within subjects during the course of a study as the result of the passage of time and that have a systematic effect on the DV: a. history b. maturation

Back 210

b. maturation; Maturation – any biological or psychological change that occurs within subjects during the course of a study as a function of time and is not relevant to the research hypothesis (e.g., fatigue, boredom, hunger, physical growth, intellectual growth). Maturation = the emergence of personal and behavioral characteristics through growth processes.

Front 211

Statistical _____ is the tendency for very high and low scores to move toward the mean on retesting.

Back 211

regression; Statistical Regression – tendency of extreme scores on a measure to “regress” or move toward the mean when the measure is readministered to the same group of people. Statistical regression threatens a study’s internal validity whenever subjects have been selected because of their extreme status on the dependent variable.

Front 212

Statistical regression threatens a study's internal validity whenever subjects are selected to participate in the study because of their extreme scores on the _____ variable measure

Back 212

dependent

Front 213

_____ is a problem when subjects in different treatment groups are not similar in terms of important characteristics at the onset of the study.

Back 213

selection; Selection – method used to assign subjects results in systematic differences between the groups at the beginning of the study (e.g., forced to use intact groups).

Front 214

_____ limits the study's internal validity when subjects who drop out of the study differ in some important way from subjects who remain in the study for its duration.

Back 214

attrition

Front 215

_____ can interact with history and threaten a study's internal validity if one group of subjects is exposed to an external condition that does not affect subjects in other groups.

Back 215

selection; Interactions With Selection – there would be an interaction between selection and history, for example, when one group of subjects is unintentionally exposed to an external event that does not affect subject in other groups.

Front 216

To control for maturation, the experimenter could: a. Include more than one group and randomly assign subjects to groups b. Use single-group time-series design c. Include more than one group d. both a. and b.

Back 216

d. both a. and b.; Maturation – any biological or psychological change that occurs within subjects during the course of a study as a function of time and is not relevant to the research hypothesis (e.g., fatigue, boredom, hunger, physical growth, intellectual growth). Maturation = the emergence of personal and behavioral characteristics through growth processes. Control: ·Include more than one group and randomly assign subjects to groups ·Use single-group time-series design

Front 217

To control for history, the experimenter would: a. Design measure in a way that minimizes memory and practice effects b. Include more than one group c. Randomly assign subjects to groups d. both b. and c.

Back 217

History – external event systematically affects the status of subjects on the DV. History = a significant event that effects people. Control: ·Include more than one group – history is more problematic when study includes only one group and the event occurs at the same time that the independent variable is applied. ·Randomly assign subjects to groups

Front 218

To control for the effects of testing, the experimenter would: a. Administer the DV measure only once b. Design measure in a way that minimizes memory and practice effects c. Include at least two groups in study d. all of the above

Back 218

d. all of the above Testing – exposure to a test might later the subjects’ performance on subsequent tests (tests that are readministered) Control: ·Administer the DV measure only once ·Design measure in a way that minimizes memory and practice effects ·Include at least two groups in study

Front 219

To control for the effects of instrumentation, the experimenter could: a. Include more than one group in study b. use the same measuring devices and procedures with all subjects c. both a. and b.

Back 219

c. both a. and b. Instrumentation – changes in the accuracy or sensitivity of measuring devices or procedures. (e.g., rater’s accuracy improves over time) Control: ·Include more than one group in study ·Ensure that all groups are subject to the same instrumentation effects by using the same measuring devices and procedures with all subjects

Front 220

To control for statistical regression, you could: a. include only extreme scores b. NOT include extreme scores c. include another group that consists of subjects who are similarly extreme. d. Either b. or c.

Back 220

d. Either b. or c. Statistical Regression – tendency of extreme scores on a measure to “regress” or move toward the mean when the measure is readministered to the same group of people. Statistical regression threatens a study’s internal validity whenever subjects have been selected because of their extreme status on the dependent variable. Control: ·NOT including only extreme scorers in the study ·Include more than one group and ensure that all groups consist of subjects who are similarly extreme.

Front 221

To control from selection affects, you could: a. Randomly assigning subjects to groups b. Administering pretest to subjects to determine if the groups differ initially with regard to the DV c. either a. or b.

Back 221

c. either a. or b. Selection – method used to assign subjects results in systematic differences between the groups at the beginning of the study (e.g., forced to use intact groups). Use of the term selection here is somewhat misleading as we are really talking about “assignment”. Control: ·Randomly assigning subjects to groups, or when not possible, ·Administering pretest to subjects to determine if the groups differ initially with regard to the DV

Front 222

True or false. Pretest can help with attrition rates as they can determine if dropouts and non-dropouts differ with regard to their initial status on the DV.

Back 222

Attrition (Mortality) – subjects who drop out of one group differ in an important way from subjects who drop out of other groups. Control: · Pretest can help determine if dropouts and non-dropouts differ with regard to their initial status on the DV.

Front 223

When blocking is used to control an extraneous variable, the extraneous variable is treated as an independent variable, and its effects on the _____ variable are statistically analyzed.

Back 223

dependent; blocking is a method used to control an extraneous variable when an investigator wants to statistically analyze its main and interaction effects on the DV. Involves blocking (grouping)subjects with regard to their status on the extraneous variable and then randomly assigning subjects in each block to one of the treatment groups.

Front 224

In a research study, variability in the dependent variable that is attributable to the _____ variable is referred to as "experimental variability."

Back 224

independent variable

Front 225

External validity refers to the _____ of the results of a research study.

Back 225

generalizability

Front 226

The random selection of subjects for a research study is most useful for maximizing a study's _____ validity, while random assignment of subjects to treatment groups is most important for ensuring that the study has adequate _____ validity.

Back 226

external; internal

Front 227

When using the analysis of covariance, the "covariate": a. is treated as an independent variable b. is an extraneous variable c. is the dependent variable

Back 227

b. is an extraneous variable; Statistical Control of the Extraneous Variable ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) or other statistical technique to remove variability (equalizing all subjects with regard to their status on that variable) in the DV.

Front 228

Extraneous variables: a. correlate with the DV b. correlate with the IV c. correlate with the DV and the IV

Back 228

a. correlate with the DV

Front 229

Which of the following is an example of demand characteristics: a. an experimenter double-checks his data whenever it doesn't conform to the research hypothesis b. subjects alter their behaviors in ways that help them avoid negative evaluations by the experiment c. subtle cues in the environment communicate to subjects what behaviors are expected of them

Back 229

c. demand characteristics are cues in the experimental situation that inform research participants of how they are expected to behave during the course of the study. Demand characteristics can threaten a study's internal and external validity.

Front 230

Counterbalancing is used to control: a. order effects b. statistical regression c. demand characteristics

Back 230

a. order effects; Multiple Treatment Interference (Order Effects, Carryover Effects) – when a study involves exposing each subject to two or more levels of an independent variable (i.e., when the study utilizes within-subjects design) the effects of one level of the independent variable can be affected by previous exposure to another level. Control: ·Counterbalanced design – different subjects (or groups of subjects) receive the levels of the IV in a different order (e.g., Latin Square Design).

Front 231

A psychologist evaluates the effects of a 15-month training program on the conservation skills of preoperational children by administering a measure of conservation to the same group of children before and at the end of the training. The psychologist finds that a significantly greater number of children conserve after the program than before. The biggest threat to this study's internal validity is: a. maturation b. history c. selection

Back 231

a. Maturation reflects changes that occur within subjects as the result of the passage of time.

Front 232

Dr. Dogood includes only students who have very low GPAs in her study that is designed to test the hypothesis that a motivational training course will improve academic achievement. The biggest threat to this study's internal validity is: a. reactivity b. statistical regression c. maturation

Back 232

b. Statistical Regression – tendency of extreme scores on a measure o “regress” or move toward the mean when the measure is readministered to the same group of people. Statistical regression threatens a study’s internal validity whenever subjects have been selected because of their extreme status on the dependent variable. Control: ·NOT including only extreme scorers in the study ·Include more than one group and ensure that all groups consist of subjects who are similarly extreme.

Front 233

An experimenter compares the effects of three different diets on weight loss by assessing overweight subjects either to Diet A, Diet B, or Diet C and then determining each subject's weight one week, six weeks, and three months after beginning the diet. This study is an example of which type of research design: a. between groups b. within subjects c. mixed

Back 233

c. mixed designs are research designs in which both between-groups and within-subjects comparisons can be made.

Front 234

When a study has both main and interaction effects: a. the main effects take precedence over the interaction effects b. the main effects should be interpreted in light of the interaction effects c. the main and interaction effects should be interpreted seperately

Back 234

b.

Front 235

Use of an ABAB design involves: a. applying two different treatments to subjects at two different times b. applying a single treatment to subjects at two different times c. applying a single treatment to two different behaviors

Back 235

b.

Front 236

The single-subject AB design is most similar to which of the following group designs: a. counterbalanced b. one-group time-series c. factorial

Back 236

b.

Front 237

A factorial design includes two or more _____.

Back 237

independent variables; the name given to any research design that includes two or more "factors" (IVs). Factorial designs permit analysis of main and interaction effects. (An interaction occurs when the impact of one IV differs at different levels of another variable.)

Front 238

When using a multiple baseline design, a treatment is _____ applied to the different baselines.

Back 238

sequentially; A single-subject design that involves sequentially applyling a treatment to different "baselines" (e.g., to different behaviors, settings, or subjects). Useful when a reversal design would be impracticle or unethical.

Front 239

Single-subject research designs always include at least one _____ (A) phase and at least one _____ (B) phase.

Back 239

baseline (no treatment); treatment

Front 240

An experimenter conducts a study to investigate the effects of task complexity and motivation on performance and obtains the following mean scores on a measure of task performance: H Motivation L Motivation Simple Task 50 35 Complex Task 10 25 Based on this data (and assuming that there are the same number of subjects in each group), you can tentatively conclude that there is: a. a main effect of task complexity b. a main effect of task complexity and a main effect of motivation c. a main effect of task complexity and an interaction

Back 240

c.

Front 241

WAIS Scores are composed on a: a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale

Back 241

c.

Front 242

Minutes to complete a task, consist of a: a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale

Back 242

d. ratio scale

Front 243

Number of siblings consists of a: a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale

Back 243

d.

Front 244

Ranking of peers in terms of popularity would occur on which of the following scales: a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale

Back 244

b.

Front 245

College level (freshman, sophomore, junior, senior) would occur on which of the following scale: a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale

Back 245

b.

Front 246

Althletes' numbers would occur on which of the following scales: a. nominal scale b. ordinal scale c. interval scale d. ratio scale

Back 246

a.

Front 247

The assumption of equal intervals between successive points on a measurement scale is characteristic of: a. ordinal, interval, and ratio scales b. interval and ratio scales c. ratio scales only

Back 247

b.

Front 248

When using a(n) _____ scale of measurement, a score of zero indicates that the person has none of the characteristics being measured: a. ordinal, interval, or ratio b. interval or ratio c. ratio

Back 248

c.

Front 249

When a study's dependent variable is measured on a(n) _____ scale, a researcher does not have scale values or scores to analyze but can only compare frequencies.

Back 249

nominal

Front 250

If you can conclude, on the basis of their test scores, that Keisha has twice as much of a characteristic as Kali, the test scores represent a(n) _____ scale of measurement.

Back 250

ratio

Front 251

Which of the following describes the relationship between the variance and the standard deviation: a. the variance is twice the size of the standard deviation. b. the variance is the square root of the standard deviation c. the variance is the square of the standard deviation

Back 251

c.

Front 252

A teacher administers a test of reading achievement to a 4th grade class. An inspection of the distribution of scores indicates that there are very few high scores but many low scores. If the teacher is most interested in impressing the administration with how well her students are doing, she will report which of the following: a. mean b. median c. mode

Back 252

a.mean. The outcome for the teacher's class' scores indicates a positively skewed distribution (most of the scores are on the low end). In positively skewed distributions, the mean is greater than the median, which, in turn, is greater than the mode. Pos skew = mo, md, m, (from lowest to highest) Neg skew = m, md, mo (from lowest to highest)

Front 253

The test scores of a group of 35 students is fairly evenly distributed throughout the range of possible scores. The distribution is best described as: a. mesokurtic b. platykurtic c. leptokurtic

Back 253

b. platykurtic refers to a "flatter" distribution. "Kurtosis" refers to the relative peakedness (height or flatness) of a distribution: when a distribution is more "peaked" than the normal distribution, it is referred to as "leptokurtic"; when a distribution is flatter, it is called "platykurtic" and a normal curve is "mesokurtic".

Front 254

If the dependent variable in a research study is college major, the _____ is the appropriate measure of central tendency.

Back 254

mode

Front 255

In a normal distribution, approximately ____ % of observations fall between the scores that are plus and minus one standard deviation from the mean.

Back 255

68

Front 256

In a _____ skewed distribution, the median is greater (has a higher value) than the mean.

Back 256

negatively

Front 257

In the population, an IQ test has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 12, and scores on the test are normally distributed. Consequently, it is possible to conclude that about _____& of people have scores between 76 and 124.

Back 257

95%

Front 258

In a normal distribution, _____ % of scores fall below the mean and about _____ % of scores fall below the score that is one standard deviation above the mean.

Back 258

50; 84

Front 259

A reading test is to be used to select students whose scores are in the bottom 16% in order to provide them with appropriate remedial instruction. If scores are normally distributed, and the distribution's mean is 100 and its standard deviation is 10, the cutoff score should be set at _____.

Back 259

90 (one standard deviation below the mean)

Front 260

True or False. The probability of incorrectly retaining the null hypothesis is equal to alpha.

Back 260

False. This describes beta (type II error) in which a false null hypothesis is retained.

Front 261

True or False. Power refers to the probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis.

Back 261

True.

Front 262

The standard error of the mean is the _____ of the sampling distribution of the mean.

Back 262

standard deviation

Front 263

In the population, a test has a mean of 150 and standard deviation of 25. If the research study in which the test will serve as the DV measure includes 100 subjects, the standard error of the mean is equal to _____.

Back 263

2.5

Front 264

When alpha is increased from .01 to .05, the probability of making a Type II error _____ and power _____.

Back 264

decreases; increases

Front 265

Based on the results of his study, a researcher concludes that a workshop did not improve participants' test performance when, in fact, the workshop did improve performance but the improvement was not detected due to the unreliability of the dependent variable measure. The researcher has made a Type _____ error.

Back 265

II

Front 266

Accoring to the Central Limit Theorem, the shape of the sampling distribution of means: a. is normal only when the population distribution is normal b. approaches normal as the number of samples increases regardless of the shape of the population distribution c. approaches normal as the size of the sample increases regardless of the shape of the population distribution

Back 266

c.

Front 267

A researcher has analyzed the difference between mean posttest scores of experimental and control group subjects. The researcher will be MOST confident that his decision to reject the null hypothesis is correct if the results of his study are significant at: a. the .10 level b. the .05 level c. the .01 level

Back 267

c.

Front 268

Less power means: a. an increased chance of retaining a false null hypothesis b. a decreased chance of rejecting a true null hypothesis c. an increased chance of achieving statistical significance

Back 268

a.

Front 269

The mean of a theoretical sampling distribution of the mean is equal to: a. zero b. the sample mean c. the population mean

Back 269

c.

Front 270

A researcher conducts a study to test the hypothesis that level of conflict (high, moderate, or low) and participation in a communication skills workshop (yes or no) predicts a couple's relationship status one year later (together or seperated). This study has: a. one IV and two nominal DVs b. two IVs and one ratio DV c. two IVs and one nominal DV

Back 270

c.

Front 271

The researcher in the above study would use which of the following tests to analyze the data she has collected: a. Student's t-test b. chi-square test c. analysis of variance

Back 271

b.

Front 272

Dr. V. T. Min is interested in comparing the reaction time (in seconds) of two groups of men. One group has been placed on a nutritional supplement for six months: the other group has received no supplement. This study has: a. one IV and one ratio DV b. one IV and one nominal DV c. one variable

Back 272

a.

Front 273

The appropriate statistical test for the data Dr. Min has collected is: a. multiple-sample chi-square test b. Mann-Whitney U Test c. t-test for independent samples

Back 273

c.

Front 274

An experimenter wants to assess the effectiveness of a training course for improving SAT scores by comparing the pretest and posttest scores of a group of high school students. To analyze the data obtained in this study, the expermenter should use which statistical test: a. two-way ANOVA b. t-test for single samples c. t-test for related samples

Back 274

c. t-test for related samples

Front 275

You have collected scores on a measure of cognitive functioning from patients who have and have not received a diagnosis of schizophrenia and whose families have been classified as either high, moderate, or low in "expressed emotion." To analyze the data you have collected, you will use the: a. factorial ANOVA b. one-way ANOVA c. multiple-sample chi-square test

Back 275

a. factorial ANOVA

Front 276

The Wicoxon test can be considered a "nonparametric alternative" to the t-test for _____ .

Back 276

correlated (related) samples

Front 277

A researcher will use trend analysis when her study's _____ is quantitative.

Back 277

independent variable

Front 278

A psychologist uses a t-test to analyze the data he has obtained from a single-group pretest-posttest design that included 29 subjects. The degrees of freedom are _____.

Back 278

28 - 1 = 27

Front 279

The numerator of the F-ratio is a measure of variability due to _____ and the denominator is a measure of variability due to _____ .

Back 279

treatemnt and error; error

Front 280

Parametric and nonparametric tests share in common which of the following assumptions: a. random assignment of samples to groups b. random selection of the sample from the population c. a normally-shaped distribution of DV scores in the population.

Back 280

b. random selection of the sample from the population

Front 281

Dr. Frugal decides to use the MANOVA rather than separate ANOVAs to analyze the data he has collected. Most likely, this is because Dr. Frugal wants to: a. statistically remove the effects of systematic error b. statistically analyze both main and interaction effects c. increase statistical power

Back 281

c. increase statistical power

Front 282

A chi-square test would not be the appropriate statistical test in which of the following situations: a. the population distribution is non-normal b. subjects can appear in more than one category c. a quasi-experimental design has been used

Back 282

b. subjects can appear in more than one category

Front 283

An experimenter would decide to use a one-way ANOVA instead of seperate t-tests to analyze the data she has collected in a study involving one IV with four levels because: a. she wants to reduce the Type I error rate. b. she wants to control systematic error c. her study includes more than one DV

Back 283

a. she wants to reduce the Type I error rate.

Front 284

A _____ (positive/negative) correlation indicates that people scoring low on one variable tend to obtain high scores on another vaiable.

Back 284

negative

Front 285

When both variables are reported in terms of ranks, the appropriate correlation coefficient is the _____.

Back 285

Spearman rho

Front 286

Which of the following would be the best correlation coefficient when x is cigarette use (smoker vs. non-smoker) and Y is the number of car accidents: a. Spearman rho b. point biserial c. contingency

Back 286

b. point biserial

Front 287

The "least squares criterion" is used to: a. determine the optimal location for the "line of best fit" b. statistically "partial out" the effects of a third variable c. identify the criterion group that an examinee most closely resembles.

Back 287

a. determine the optimal location for the "line of best fit"

Front 288

To measure the degree of association between two variables when their relationship is known to be curvilinear, you should use: a. eta b. phi c. biserial

Back 288

a. eta

Front 289

A correlation of 0 between X and Y is suggested by a scattergram when: a. the variability of Y scores is the same at all values of X b. the variability of Y scores at all values of X is equal to the total variabilty of Y scores c. the variability of Y scores is less than the variablity of X scores at all values of X

Back 289

b. the variability of Y scores at all values of X is equal to the total variabilty of Y scores

Front 290

Multicollinearity: a. increases the probability that a correlation coefficient will be statistically significant b. refers to high correlations between predictors and is a problem in multiple regression c. refers to high correlations between each predictor and the criterion and is desirable in multiple regression

Back 290

b. refers to high correlations between predictors and is a problem in multiple regression

Front 291

A psychologist wants to use attitude toward the company, years of experience, and need for achievement to predict whether a job applicant is likely to be a "successful manager" or an "unsuccessful manager." The psychologist knows there is a nonlinear relationship bewteen need for achievement and success, with a moderate need for achievement being characteristic of successful managers and a low and high need for achievement being more characteristic of unsuccessful managers. The correct multivariate technique for this situation is: a. canonical correlation b. discriminant analysis c. logistic regression

Back 291

c. logistic regression

Front 292

Path analysis is used to: a. test a theory of causal order among a set of variables b. develop a causal model involving multiple variables c. identify causal antecedents

Back 292

a. test a theory of causal order among a set of variables

Front 293

If the correlation bewteen X and Y is .70 this means that _____ percent of the variability in Y is explained by variablity in X.

Back 293

49

Front 294

If the Pearson r is used to correlate two variables and have a curvilinear relationship, the correlation coefficient is likely to _____ (overestimate/underestimate) their true relationship.

Back 294

underestimate

Front 295

For your original sample, R-squared equals .64. When you cross-validate on another sample, R-squared is likely to _____ .

Back 295

smaller (less than .64)

Front 296

A school psychologist wants to determine if there is a significant difference in reading readiness scores between male and female students in the school's preschool program. she obtains scores on a standardized reading readiness test for 17 girls and 13 boys. Which statistical test will be most appropriate for determining if there is a significant difference between the scores obtained by boys and girls: a. two-way ANOVA b. Student's t-test c. Kolmogorov test d. chi-square test for contingency tables

Back 296

b. A t-test (a.k.a. Student's t-test) is used to compare the mean scores obtained by two groups. a. INCORRECT - the two-way ANOVA is used when a study involves two independent variables. In this study, there is one IV (gender). c. INCORRECT - the Kolmogorov test is used iwth a single sample and ordinal data d. INCORRECT - the chi-square test is used to analyze frequency (nominal) data.

Front 297

A multiple regression equation yields a predicted criterion score for an examinee based on the examinee's scores on the predictors included in a test battery. when computing a multiple regression equation, each test is weighted: a. in direct proportion to its correlation with the criterion and in inverse proportion to its correlation with the other predictors in the test battery b. in inverse proportion to its correlation with the criterion and in direct proportion to its correlation with the other predictors in the test battery c. in direct proportion to its correlation iwth the criterion and with the other predictors in the test battery d. in inverse proportion to its correlation with the criterion and with the other predictors in the test battery.

Back 297

a. by computing the multiple regression equation so that each test is weighted in direct proportion to its correlation with the criterion and in inverse proportion to its correlation with other tests, the test with the highest criterion-related validity and the least amount of overlap (correlation) with the other tests will be given the largest weight, while the test with the lowest criterion-related validity and the most overlap with other tests will be given the smallest weight.

Front 298

During the course of the data analysis, a researcher more often double-checks results that seem to conflict with her hypothesis than results that confirm it. This is an example of: a. the experimenter expectancy effect b. demand characteristics c. the Pygmalion Effect d. a correspondence bias

Back 298

a. Experimenter expectancy (bias) occurs when the experimenter's behavior biases the research results in some (usually unconscious) way so that the results are consistent with the research hypothesis. b. INCORRECT - Demand characteristics are cues in the research situation that communicate to subjects what behaviors are expected of them. Experimenter expectencies can act as a source of demand characteristics (although that wouldn't be the case in this situation). c. INCORRECT - The Pygmalion Effect (aka the self-fulfilling or Rosenthal effect) occurs when a person's expectations about another individual actually produce subtle changes in the individual's behavior so that the behavior conforms to the person's expectations. d. INCORRECT - Correspondence bias is another name for the fundamental attribution bias, which is the tendency for observers to attribute another person's behavior to dispositional (rather than situational) factors.

Front 299

If your statistical test has low "power," this also means that: a. there is low probability of making a Type II error b. there is high probability of making a Type I error c. you will not likely obtain statistically significant results d. you have set the level of significance too high

Back 299

c. although it will be more difficult to reject the null hypothesis, it would not be impossible. a. INCORRECT - power is equal to one minus beta, where beta is equal to the probability of making a Type II error (of retaining a false null hypothesis). Thus, there is an inverse relationship between power and a Type II error, and if there is low power, there's a high probability that a Type II error will be made. b. INCORRECT - The easier it is to make a Type II error, the more difficult it is to make a Type I error. As noted above, when there is low power, there is a high probability of making a Type II error. Consequently, there is a low probability of making a Type I error. d. INCORRECT - One way to increase power is to increase the level of significance since this has the effect of increasing the rejection region. Thus, if you have low power, you are more likely to have set the level of significance too low.

Front 300

When conducting a research study, you want to ensure that you will detect a difference between the treatment group and the control group. Therefore you wil: a. decrease error variance by decreasing the magnitude of the independent variable b. increase experimental variance by controlling the effects of extraneous variable c. increase experimental variance by increasing the magnitide of the IV d. decreasing the probability of making a Type II error (retaining a false null hypothesis) by increasing beta

Back 300

c.

Front 301

Def: cluster analysis *

Back 301

Random selection of naturally occurring groups, rather than individuals

Front 302

Def: analog study

Back 302

Assessing a phenomenon under conditions that resemble the phenomenon in the field

Front 303

Def: a cross-sequential research design

Back 303

A combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs Subjects divided into age groups Assessed on dependent variable repeatedly over time

Front 304

Developmental research designs

Back 304

Longitudinal Cross-sectional Cross-sequential

Front 305

Describe a matching design

Back 305

Grouping subjects similar on an extraneous variable and then assigning members of the group to each treatment condition

Front 306

Describe stratified random sampling

Back 306

Random sampling of sub-groups of a population eg children, teens, young adults, etc

Front 307

Describe multiple baseline study *

Back 307

Single subject Application of treatment across different baselines (behaviors, settings, individuals) Used when reversal is not possible or is unethical

Front 308

Describe a one-group time-series design

Back 308

Multiple pre-tests, followed by treatment, followed by multiple post-tests Controls for maturation, testing and regression effects Vulnerable to history, or a simultaneously occurring event

Front 309

Formula: variance (s squared)

Back 309

(sum of (X - mean)squared) / n population denominator n sample denominator n-1

Front 310

Formula: z score

Back 310

(X - mean) / standard deviation

Front 311

T score attributes

Back 311

mean = 50 sd = 10

Front 312

Stanine attributes

Back 312

Divides score range into equal ninths Mean = 5 SD = 2

Front 313

Formula: standard error of the mean *

Back 313

SE = standard deviation / square root of N also is SD of the sampling distribution of means the expected difference between the sample mean and the population mean

Front 314

Chi square requirements *

Back 314

Independent observations Mutually exclusive categories Frequency, not percentage data used

Front 315

Formula: ANOVA mean square

Back 315

mean square = sum of squares / df

Front 316

Use: phi coefficient

Back 316

Two dichotomous variables

Front 317

Use: point-biserial coefficient *

Back 317

One interval or ratio variable One naturally dichotomous variable (2 categories)

Front 318

Use: biserial coefficient *

Back 318

One interval or ratio variable One artifically dichotomous variable (2 categories) (eg scores above, scores below)

Front 319

Use: contingency coefficient

Back 319

Two nominally scaled variables, each with more than 2 categories

Front 320

Use: canonical correlation

Back 320

Multiple predictors and multiple criterion values

Front 321

Use: Spearman's rho

Back 321

Both predictor and criterion variables are ranked

Front 322

Def: coefficient of determination

Back 322

Pearson r squared % of variability accounted for in the correlation

Front 323

In an ANOVA, what does within group variance measure

Back 323

Random variance

Front 324

Which has the smallest variance? population samples individual samples mean population samples

Back 324

Mean population samples

Front 325

When are non-parametric tests used?

Back 325

When normality can't be assumed

Front 326

When homogeneity of variance is compromised, the best way to assure result robustness is...?

Back 326

To keep sample size equal

Front 327

Use: eta correlation

Back 327

With non-linear, continuous variables

Front 328

Distinguish the use of: t-test, one way ANOVA, factorial ANOVA, MANOVA and ANCOVA *

Back 328

t-test: pair of means One way ANOVA: 1 independent variable; 2 groups Factorial ANOVA: >1 independent variable permits analysis of interaction effects MANOVA >1 dependent variables minimizes p(Type I error) ANCOVA to control for the presence of an extraneous variable

Front 329

Def: internal validity

Back 329

Study that permits the conclusion that there is a causal effect between the independent and dependent variable

Front 330

Threats to internal validity

Back 330

History - an external event Maturation Test learning Changes in instrumentation Statistical regression Subject characteristics Systematic differences between stickers and dropouts Experimenter bias

Front 331

Methods for controlling threats to internal validity

Back 331

Randomization Matching Blocking Hold extraneous variables constant ANCOVA

Front 332

Def: matching

Back 332

Grouping subjects by status on extraneous variable and then randomly assigning from within groups

Front 333

Def: blocking

Back 333

Treating an extraneous variable like another independent variable

Front 334

Def: time series design

Back 334

Multiple pre-tests Treatment Multiple post-tests History is a threat to internal validity

Front 335

Bias in longitudinal studies

Back 335

Tendency to underestimate age related change, esp decrements Drop outs tend to be poorer performers Practice effects on measures

Front 336

Bias in cross sectional studies

Back 336

Over estimation of effects due to aging Cohort effects Experience

Front 337

Def: Type II error (beta) *

Back 337

retaining a false null hypothesis failing to detect a true effect

Front 338

Techniques to increase the validity coefficient

Back 338

Increase the range of scores

Front 339

Def: shrinkage *

Back 339

Occurs when predictors are DEVELOPED on one sample and then VALIDATED on another. The correlation coefficient for the second sample is likely to be lower.

Front 340

def: power *

Back 340

ability to detect a treatment effect p (rejecting a false null hypothesis) p (not making a type II error) 1 - beta

Front 341

factors affecting power

Back 341

sample size - larger alpha - larger one tailed test magnitude of the population difference - larger

Front 342

assumptions of parametric tests

Back 342

normal distribution of the dependent variable homogeneity of variance independence of observations - most critical

Front 343

Def: F statistic

Back 343

In an ANOVA, the ratio of between group variance over within group variance

Front 344

Common non-parametric tests

Back 344

Chi-square - frequencies of nominal data Mann-Whitney U - non-parametric equivalent of a t-test; 2 independent groups - nominal scores Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs test - non-parametric equivalent of a t-test for correlated scores Kruskal-Wallis test - non-parametric alternative to a one-way ANOVA

Front 345

ANOVA post-hoc tests

Back 345

Scheffe provides greatest protection against a type I error, but increases probability of a type II error Tukey most appropriate for pairwise comparisons

Front 346

Calculation of CHI-square expected frequencies

Back 346

simple case = subjects / cells complex case = column total * row total / total N

Front 347

Assumptions of Pearson r

Back 347

linear relationship between variables homoscedasticity - equal variability on y throughout the x range r is highest when using the full range of scores on both variables

Front 348

Use: discriminant function analysis

Back 348

scores are combined to determine group assignment in contrast to multiple regression in which multiple variables are combined to predict a score

Front 349

Def: differential validity

Back 349

in discriminant analysis, each predictor has a high correlation with a single category criterion and a low correlation with the other category criteria IQ has low differential validity

Front 350

Use: structural equation modeling

Back 350

testing causal models based on multiple variables

Front 351

Techniques of structural equation modeling *

Back 351

Path analysis - one way causal relationship with observed values LISREL - one or two way causal analysis with both observed and infered variables helps sort out the contributions of true score and error variance

Front 352

Use: trend analysis

Back 352

determination of shape of the relationship between variables: eg linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic... yield the significance of the trend

Front 353

Def: sampling distribution

Back 353

a distribution of the values of a statistic (eg the mean) with each value computed from same-sized samples drawn with replacement from the population has less variability than the population distribution

Front 354

Central limit theorem *

Back 354

1. As sample size increases the shape of the sampling distribution of means approaches a normal shape - even if the distribution of scores is not normal 2.The mean of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the mean of the population

Front 355

Rosenthal effect

Back 355

aka experimenter expectancy effect unintentional effect experimenter exerts towards making the results come out right

Front 356

experiment-wise error rate

Back 356

probability of making at least 1 type I error when multiple comparisons are made in a single experiment

Front 357

heteroscedasticity

Back 357

unequal variability of y scores at different values of x

Front 358

Effect on t test when comparison groups are highly correlated

Back 358

Within group variability is suppressed, giving an artificially high t value

Front 359

Threats to external validity *

Back 359

Interaction between selection and treatment would create problems in generalization

Front 360

Use: tetrachoric coefficient

Back 360

2 artificially dichotomous variables

Front 361

Use: paired t test

Back 361

Analysis of means when groups are not independent (eg twin studies or repeated measures) df = # of pairs - 1

Front 362

ANOVA vs multiple regression

Back 362

ANOVA uses categorical independent variables only Multiple regression can use either categorical or continuous variables