Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What are the 8 ethical guidelines |
Protection of participants, informed consent, debriefing, right to withdraw, confidentiality, giving advice, privacy, colleagues |
|
|
What is the difference between confidentiality and privacy? |
Confidentiality is keeping personal information protected and privacy is not having your psychological or physical space invaded |
|
|
What is the difference between deception and lack of informed consent? |
Deception is lying to participants and lack of informed consent is where they don't know all the details of the study (may not know they are in one) |
|
|
What is the difference between protection of participants and giving advice? |
Protection of participants is ensuring that participants leave the study in the same condition they entered. Giving advice is a solution if participants are not protected: direct them to someone who can help if issues are caused by study |
|
|
What is the purpose of colleagues? |
To ensure the study is being conducted responsibly with ethical rights of participants in mind |
|
|
What is the potential ethical issue with a lab experiment and why? |
Deception to reduce demand characteristics |
|
|
What a potential ethical problem with naturalistic observations and why? |
Informed consent because participants don't know they're being watched |
|
|
What are the main ethical issues with self reports? |
Confidentiality and protection of participants (if intrusive questions) |
|
|
What are the main ethical issues with researching young children? |
Informed consent (get the parents) and protection of participants because children are vulnerable so tasks may be unsuitable |
|
|
What can be done instead of conducting an experiment if it is too unethical to do so? |
Role plays or questionnaires because unethical behaviour is not real and therefore less harm is caused |
|
|
How can intrusive questions be dealt with in questionnaires? |
Make it clear at the consent stage, the nature of the questions and remind about right to withdraw |
|
|
What can be done instead if experiments are too harmful to conduct? |
Role play or questionnaires |
|
|
How should a researcher obtain informed consent in a lab and field if they can't tell the participants |
Lab: debrief or prior general consent Field: presumptive consent |
|
|
What is the definition of a lab experiment? |
The IV is manipulated by the researcher The DV is measured under Maidenhead natural conditions |
|
|
What is the definition of a natural experiment? |
The IV is naturally occurring The DV is measured under very natural conditions |
|
|
What is a naturalistic observation? |
Watching people in their own environments |
|
|
What is a single subject study? |
An experiment using one participant |
|
|
What is a case study? |
A detailed investigation into an individual |
|
|
What is a simulation? |
Creating a realistic situation which resembles an environment in which to observe behaviour (e.g. Zimbardo's prison study) |
|
|
What is a correlation study? |
Measures of strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables |
|
|
What are the 2 types of self reports? |
Questionnaires and interviews |
|
|
What is a meta analysis? |
Drawing conclusions from a number of different studies |
|
|
Name an advantage of interviews over questionnaires |
More likely to generate qualitative and therefore valid data since participants will elaborate more when speaking than when writing |
|
|
Why are longitudinal studies very valid? |
People can be studied at specific points in their lives to see if an effect of a circumstance in permanent. This doesn't rely on memory as people are studied at the time so is not subjective |
|
|
What is an advantage of questionnaires over interviews? |
More likely to generate quantitative data which is easier to analyse and quicker and cheaper as can test so many people at once |
|
|
What is a problem with natural experiments? |
Low control |
|
|
What is an issue with lab experiments? |
Low ecological validity, demand characteristics |
|
|
What is a strength of a correlation study? |
No need for experiment manipulation which could be unethical |
|
|
What is a problem with correlations? |
Can't show cause and effect (can't see which variable affects the other and the relationship is only correlational so other factors may contribute |
|
|
What is a strength of a case study? |
Unrepresentative (sample of 1) and can be unethical (intrusive) |
|
|
What is the independent variable? |
The one you manipulate |
|
|
What is the dependent variable? |
The one you measure |
|
|
What is control? |
Something that is put in place to ensure extraneous variables do not affect the validity of the study |
|
|
What is control |
Something that is put in place to ensure extraneous variables do not affect the validity of the study |
|
|
What is the purpose of a control group? |
Forms a comparison so that the researcher can be sure that any difference in the DV is caused by the IV |
|
|
What is an extraneous variable? |
Something that affects the DV other than the IV which could be a threat to validity |
|
|
What is a confounding variable? |
Something that has affected the DV other than the IV which has therefore threatened the validity |
|
|
What is internal validity? |
Does the study measure what it intends to measure |
|
|
What is meant by reliability? |
Consistency within or between studies/measures (e.g. 2 halves of a questionnaire should be consistent) |
|
|
What are the 3 parts of internal validity? |
Controls, test validity and experimental realism |
|
|
What are the 3 parts of external validity? |
Ecological, population (including cross cultural), historical |
|
|
What is meant test validity? |
If the test a true measure of what it is trying to measure |
|
|
What is concurrent validity? |
If similar measures show the same findings (i.e. comparing your measure to a well respected one to ensure that your measurement is accurate) |
|
|
What is experimental realism as a type of internal validity? |
If the participants believe what they are doing in the study to be real (e.g. in Milgram's study participants really believed they were giving shocks because they were given a sample shock to improve experimental realism) |
|
|
How can reliability be assessed/checked? |
Test - retest (should get the same result of you repeat the study) or split half (if questionnaire, compare the 2 halves: should be measuring the same variable) or compare to another measure |
|
|
How can internal validity be assessed/checked? |
In order to see if a study is high in realism participants could be asked in post experimental interviews if they believed what they were doing |
|
|
How can reliability be improved? |
Repeat the study to get more data, use a structure, training, closed questions |
|
|
How can internal validity be improved? |
By deceiving participants so they do not know the aim of the study, remaining covert, controlling extraneous variables, pilot study to ensure participants complete study correctly, training psychologists |
|
|
What is external validity? |
Can we generalise to other people, other places, other times |
|
|
How can be external validity be improved? |
More varied sample (repeat study in other cultures, at other times, in different situations) |
|
|
What is meant by the terms ethnocentric, androcentric and oestrocentric? |
Ethnocentric: only one culture Androcentric: only males Oestrocentric: only females |
|
|
What is a potential ethical problem with self reports and how could you solve this? |
Confidentiality. Refer to participants as a number/password protected software |
|
|
Which type of questions in a survey method generates quantitative and qualitative data? |
quantitative: closed qualitative: open |
|
|
What is a leading question and what is it a threat and why? |
Causes participants to give a biased response. Reduces validity because it is not the person's true belief as it is coerced by the researcher |
|
|
Would closed or open questions on a questionnaire generate more reliable findings and why? |
Closed: easier to analyse and interpret (less subjective) |
|
|
Would open or closed questions generate more valid data and why? |
Open: people are free to express their real views and are not restricted to an answering system |
|
|
What is the main methodological problem with questionnaires? |
Socially desirable answers |
|
|
What is the purpose of filler questions in self reports? |
Questions irrelevant to the aim will disguise it, preventing demand characteristics |
|
|
What is the difference between structured and unstructured interviews and give an advantage of each |
Structured uses set questions and so is easier to analyse results (reliable), whereas unstructured follows no set questions but just approaches a given topic. Data is more valid since more rich detail can be obtained from interesting areas |
|
|
Name 2 methodological issues with interviews? |
Interviewer bias (reduces validity) and takes a long time as people must be questioned by one by one |
|
|
What are the 3 types of recording system in observations? Describe them |
Coding systems (giving each item a code and using the code when recording to save time), checklists (ticking when behaviour occurs), rating scales (Likert scales e.g. 0-7 on how much a behaviour is shown) |
|
|
What is the difference between covert and overt observations and which is more likely to have higher validity? |
Covert is when the observer is hidden: more valid as participants show natural behaviour Overt is where participants know they are being watched (often the case in controlled observations) |
|
|
Name and describe the 2 types of sampling in observations? |
Time sampling (ticking say every minute what behaviour are occurring and event sampling (ticking every time the behaviour occurs) |
|
|
When might event sampling be used in observations? |
If behaviour is infrequent and singular (e.g. aggression in children) |
|
|
When might time sampling be used in observations? |
If behaviour is frequent and multiple (e.g. facial expressions) |
|
|
How can reliability be checked in an observation? |
Use 2 observers and check agreement is 80% or more |
|
|
How can reliability be improved in an observation? |
Make sure the recording system resembles existing established ones (concurrent validity), check the findings can be generalised by performing the observation in other places on different groups. Could also check against another measure such as a questionnaire (ask people after the observations) |
|
|
How can validity be improved in an observation? |
Train observers to be accurate in their recordings, remain covert, increase the diversity of the sample to improve external validity |
|
|
What is a positive correlation? |
As one variable increases so does the other |
|
|
What is a negative correlation? |
As one variable increases, the other decreases |
|
|
In correlations, what is a correlation coefficient? |
Number representing the strength and direction if the relationship between variables |
|
|
How would you describe a correlation of +1.0 |
Perfect positive |
|
|
How would you describe a correlation -0.32 |
Fairly weak negative |
|
|
In correlations, what is an intervening variable? |
One which sits between the IV and the DV (the IV causes it, and it causes the DV). This is why correlations are often misleading |
|
|
What is experimental/alternative hypothesis? |
A testable statement of prediction (experimental: if experiment) (Alternative: non-experiment method) |
|
|
What is a null hypothesis? |
States there will be no difference or relationship and any difference is due to chance |
|
|
What is the difference between a directional and non - directional hypothesis? |
Directional states one outcome and non-directional states more than one possible outcome |
|
|
State a directional hypothesis about the relationship between people's perception of a person's age and the amount of hair they have? |
The amount of hair a person will not affect people's perception of their age |
|
|
What is operationalisation? |
Clearly defining concepts or terms |
|
|
What is a pilot study and why are they conducted? |
Small scale preliminary study to see if there are any problems with the method/measurement so they can be corrected in time for the main study. This will save time and money being wasted on doing a larger study with flaws. It might also be useful to see if a larger study is worth doing at all |
|
|
Name and describe 5 types of sampling (obtaining participants) |
Opportunity (go to a place where you can easily obtain sample), random (every member of population has equal chance of being selected: number generators, computers or a hat can be used to pick without bias), self selected (participants pick themselves by responding to adverts), systematic (all participants in a data base and every nth person is selected) and stratified (participants are selected randomly but proportions in the sample represent those in the population) |
|
|
What is a good thing about random sampling which is bad about opportunity? |
Everyone has an equal chance of being selected therefore the sample is representative, unlike opportunity |
|
|
What is good about a self selected sample which is bad about random? |
Less time consuming to obtain sample because researcher can just advertise whereas random is very time consuming |
|
|
What is a problem with a self selected sample? |
Only a certain type of person might respond to the advert (those with something to show off/people who need money if offered) |
|
|
What type of sampling is appropriate when the population is very diverse? |
Random or stratified because they would be representative |
|
|
Which type of sampling is good for children and why? |
Self selected as parents have already agreed for their child to take part so reduces drop out rates |
|
|
Why might stratified be better than random? |
All groups in the population will be fairly represented in stratified, whereas random may by chance generate a biased sample |
|
|
What is it meant by design? |
The allocation of participants to conditions, whether it is independent measures, repeated measures or matched pairs |
|
|
What is an independent measures design? |
Participants are allocated to groups and carry out one condition |
|
|
What is repeated measures design? |
All participants carry out all conditions |
