Rbt-C

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C­01 Identify the essential components of a well written skills acquisition plan

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A well ­written skill acquisition plan includes:

1. A definition of the skill to be acquired

2. A baseline measurement of the skill or the behavior it is replacing

3. A clear goal that indicates skill acquisition

4. A detailed description of the procedures that will be used to implement the plan

5. Reactive strategies to employ when undesired behavior occurs or the skill is not immediately acquired.

6. Data collection and display methods that are to be used

7. Frequent review of data and circumstances in order to make minor adjustments to the plan

8. A plan for maintenance and termination of services

Your responsibility, line­by­line:

1. The definition will likely come from your supervisor or other source. Make sure that youreview the definition and, ideally, observe with your supervisor. Reviewing the definitionat each supervision session is also recommended. This is so that the definition ofbehavior is clearly understood by all and that you are accurately recording behavior.

2. You will be asked to record the behavior prior to intervention, in order to learn the currentrate. This is also done to compare behavior before intervention to behavior during and/orafter intervention. In most cases, the undesirable behavior is recorded. In many cases,the undesirable behavior and the new skill are recorded. When recording both, youshould see a concurrent reduction in one behavior and an increase in the skill beingtaught.

3. Goals are extremely important. They must be carefully designed so that when reached,all parties know that intervention is complete, or new goals are developed. Rememberthat it is your client that ultimately needs to benefit from service, but that surrogates,supervisors, insurance companies, etc. also have a desire to know if treatment iseffective.

4. A detailed description should be so clear that one could pick up the plan and implementit with complete fidelity. This is rarely the case, however. Even with the best­ written plan,behaviors and circumstances evolve quickly and revisions to the original plan are almostcertain. Your responsibility will be questioning your supervisor on specifics that may bemisunderstood, vague or are missing from the plan. Once the plan is understood, yourduty is to implement it with complete fidelity. Again, the plan may need changing. Ratherthan change the plan yourself, however, you should regularly meet with your supervisorto discuss developments.

5. The plan should discuss how you will punish or extinguish (basically, ignore) undesirablebehaviors that the new skill is meant to replace. It should also outline how to react torapid skill acquisition or acquisition that is not progressing. Other issues that arise willneed to be discussed with your supervisor.

6. The sheets or program that you use to collect data needs to be part of the plan. How,when and to whom you report this data should be specified. Also, how the data will bedisplayed and communicated to clients or surrogates.

7. Frequent review is probably weekly. The minimum amount of supervision set by theBACB is 5% of the amount of time spent with clients and at least twice per month. Atleast weekly is recommended, because minor changes to a plan are generally necessaryafter each session, especially when beginning intervention.

8. A well­ developed plan will need to think about what happens when intervention is nolonger needed. What will remain in place and who will implement the plan once you areno longer working with the client? This generally is more vague at the beginning of anintervention and becomes more cemented as the goal(s) become closer to beingreached. Once you see that a goal is close to being met, you should discuss terminationwith your supervisor.

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C­02 Prepare for the session as required by the skill acquisition plan

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This section is dependent on the skills acquisition plan. If the plan is relatively simple and easyto implement, especially if you have experience with similar plans, preparation may be simple.More complex plans may require some practice to implement. In general, it would berecommended to: Read the plan Act out the intervention to yourself Identify any areas that require clarification Review the plan with your supervisor and clarify those points that you already identified Decide with your supervisor what, who and how the plan will be communicated to a client or surrogate. Consider a checklist or shortened procedural manual for yourself Gather any materials necessary for the intervention, including tracking sheets Implement the plan

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C­03 unconditioned reinforcement

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A stimulus change that increases the future frequency of a behavior, these are primaryreinforcers, like food, water, shelter, sleep and sexual stimulation; things that are needed tosurvive and need no learning history. Other terms that are synonymous with unconditionedreinforcement: primary and unlearned. Example: When I am really cold, I am going to seek out a coat, blanket or heat to find a way tobecome warm (warmth is the reinforcer). Likewise, when we are hungry or thirsty, we look forthings in our environment to eat and drink.

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C-3 conditioned reinforcement

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A stimulus reinforces, or strengthens, set behaviors through its association with a primaryreinforcer. Conditioned reinforcement is learned, as opposed to unconditioned reinforcers thatrequire no learning history. Money is a conditioned reinforcer because it is paired with what itcan get a person (food, shelter, clothing, etc.). Imagine someone who is unfamiliar with moneyor payment who wants food. If food is offered, but also some meaningless green paper alongwith it, eventually the green paper will take on some reinforcing properties. Also, requiring thatthis person hand you some of that green paper before you give them food (food contingent onproviding money) will tend to make obtaining money a conditioned reinforcer. Conditionedreinforcement increases the future likelihood of a behavior.

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C-3 unconditioned punishment

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Unconditioned punishment is unlearned. The first time we touch a hot stove we instinctivelyremove our finger (reflexive action), this decreases one’s likelihood of touching the stove in thefuture (this becomes a learned punishment because of the history of consequences). Examplesare pain, excessive cold or heat, too much light or lack of light, loud sounds, etc.

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C-3 conditioned punishment

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Conditioned punishment is learned punishment. The first time we touch a hot stove weinstinctively remove our finger (reflexive action­­unconditioned), this decreases one’s likelihoodof touching the stove in the future. If you touched a black wood stove and experienced pain,you’ll likely act differently around a black wood stove the next time that you encounter it. Thepain needs no learning to be aversive. However, the black stove was not aversive until youtouched it and experienced pain. In this way, you learned that something previously neutral(black wood stove) became a possible source of pain. Neutral things that are paired withaversives, or aversive consequences are avoided in the future.

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c-3 Use contingencies of reinforcement (e.g., conditioned/unconditioned reinforcement,continuous/intermittent schedules ).

Intermittent reinforcement (INT)

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Simple schedules of reinforcement and punishment have two dimensions to them. The first is either fixed or variable. The second is either ratio or interval. That leaves these possibilities:

1. Fixed ratio

2. Fixed interval

3. Variable ratio

4. Variable interval

A fixed schedule has a set number of responses or time required before reinforcement isoffered. A variable schedule has a set number of responses or time, but is an a verage .Ratio schedules require a number of responses before reinforcement is offered.Interval schedules require a period of time to elapse before reinforcement for a response isavailable.

Fixed Ratio (FR)­ delivery of reinforcement based on a fixed number of responses; produces ahigh steady rate of responding with a post reinforcement pause (a pause in responsesimmediately following reinforcement).

Example: You want a student to read more. You offer ten cents (and praise) for every tenwords correctly read aloud. This is a FR10 schedule. That is, you require ten responses beforereinforcement is given. Fixed Interval (FI)­ reinforcement delivered for the first response following a passage of a setduration of time since the last response; results in increasing rate as the end of the intervalapproaches; post reinforcement pause.

Example: You want a student to read more. You offer ten cents (and praise) when yourstudent is reading aloud for the entire time. The student may only earn ten cents per minute.This is a FI1 min. The student starts to read and the timer starts. At the end of one minute,reinforcement is given. If the student continues to read, reinforcement is available only afteranother minute has passed, and so on.

Variable Ratio (VR)­ variable number of responses required for reinforcement; producessteady, high rate of responding.

Example: You want a student to read more. You offer to pay them ten cents (and praise) foran average of every ten words correctly read aloud. Sometimes the student receivesreinforcement after only 2 words. Sometimes the student receives reinforcement after 20 words.This is a VR10 schedule. Probably because of the uncertainty of when reinforcement occurs,variable schedules are not associated with a pause in responses immediately afterreinforcement. That is, the student in this example would likely read at a consistent rate untilstopping altogether.

Variable interval (VI)­ reinforcement for the first correct response following the elapse of avariable duration of time occurring in a random or unpredictable order; produces constant stablerates of responding. Example: You want a student to read more. You offer ten cents (and praise) when yourstudent is reading aloud for the entire time. You give reinforcement, on average, once perminute. Sometimes the student will receive reinforcement when reading for 30 seconds;sometimes after 2 minutes. This is a VI1min. schedule. The reinforcement availability isunknown to the student.

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Ratio interval

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C-3 Use contingencies of reinforcement

continuous (CRF) vs. intermittent (INT) schedules

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A continuous schedule of reinforcement (sometimes abbreviated into CRF) occurs when reinforcement is delivered after every single target behaviour whereas an intermittent schedule of reinforcement (INT) means reinforcement is delivered after some behaviors or responses but never after each one.

Continuous reinforcement schedules are more often used when teaching new behaviors, while intermittent reinforcement schedules are used when maintaining previously learned behaviors (Cooper et al. 2007).

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C-3 schedules of reinforcement and punishment

Intermittent reinforcement (INT)

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Take aways : Fixed schedules are associated with a post­ reinforcement pause. Variableschedules are more resistant to extinction (and fixed schedules are more easily extinguished).

Application:

1. Count the number of responses and give reinforcement after the set amount for fixedratio

2. Use a clock or timer to create a fixed interval

3. Variable ratio is the most difficult to implement, except if you have a random number generator. These applications are freely available for iPhone and Android phones. Foran average of 10, set the generator to a number between 1 and 20. Then, generatenumbers for each ratio.

4. The same number generator can be used for variable intervals. Another idea is to takethe entire session time (say 60 minutes) and divide it by the schedule (say 5 minuteaverage). This results in 12 possible reinforcement periods per session, on average. Youcan vary these 12 opportunities, accordingly.

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C­04 Implement discrete trial teaching procedures

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A “discrete” trial is just what it sounds like. It is one opportunity, by itself, to produce a response.If someone asks you, “What is 6+4?” this is a discrete trial. You either answer it correctly or youdon’t. Once you answer, there is no other opportunity for response nor for reinforcement untilthe next question is asked. Most DTT procedures are a bit more complex; we’ll get into that in abit. First, let’s mention the free­operant arrangement, which is the opposite of the discrete trial.This is often defined as, “a behavior that results in minimal displacement of the individual in timeand space and requires minimal time for completion.” What does that mean? It means thatinstead of one response and one opportunity for reinforcement, as in the DTT, a free operantprocedure allows for basically unlimited responses and reinforcements. As usual, an example may help to clarify. If I ask you what 6+4 is and you answer “ten”, I cansay “good” to reinforce you. That is a discrete trial. If instead, I put a sheet with 100 mathproblems on it and say “go”, then each problem that you complete leaves you in a position toemit another response (solve another math problem) and receive reinforcement (e.g. “good”,“right”, “you got it”, etc.). I might, in this example praise you for the first two or three completions,move to praising every other one and then every ten, on average. The “free operant”arrangement has to do with setting up tasks so that many quick responses may be emitted,rather than just one at a time.

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C­04 Implement discrete trial teaching procedures

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Since this section is about DTT, and you’ll likely be involved in applying DTT, let’s talk about the basic procedure. Although the specific instructions may vary from client to client, or with different supervisors, there are basically 5+1 parts to a discrete trial training procedure: Presenting a stimulus that is meant to evoke a response A predetermined time period in which to wait a. This is the “+1”. Sometimes, especially at first, it is necessary to prompt or guide the client to a correct response and provide reinforcement. Providing a reinforcer for a correct response A procedure for correcting or extinguishing incorrect responses An inter­trial interval between the end of one trial and the beginning of the next Again, specific instructions will vary and you’ll need to discuss these with your supervisor, even if you’ve had experience in using discrete trial training. Here’s one example of the above steps: A teacher turns over a card and lays it on the table, face up. It’s the 9 of diamonds. A 3­second wait is part of this plan. The student looks at the card, but doesn’t respond for 3 seconds. Because the student didn’t respond, a verbal cue is offered: “Ni.. The student slowly says “nine.” Another verbal cue is offered: “Nine of di...” The student says “Nine of diamonds.” This is correct A smile and an enthusiastic, “that’s right” is offered. Every 5th correct response will also include a half of a pretzel stick. The student responded correctly after prompting on this trial. If prompting was not given and the student said, “nine of reds”, then a correction might be given. This might be saying “It’s the nine of diamonds”, turning the card face down, turning the card face up and repeating the prompt. It might also be as simple as waiting, without comment for another 3 seconds. Once the trial is ended, the child is allowed to eat the pretzel piece, comment and talk to the examiner for 20 seconds before a new trial begins.

Discrete trial training involves very specific procedures and is usually used for teaching very early skills. This method has a great deal of utility with early learners, but tends to limit response opportunities for learners who have a wider repertoire.

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C­04 Implement discrimination teaching procedures

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Mass Trial (MT): same prompt each trial, only trial choice offered

Distractor Trial (DT): same prompt each trial, trial choice and two "unknown" choices

Random Roation (RR): one mastered choice and trial choice, rotating prompts

Expanded Trial (ET): trial choice and many mastered choices, rotating prompts

Maintenance/Generalization (M/G): use trial choice as mastered choice in next RR and ET

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C­06 Implement task analyzed training procedures

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Breaking down a complex skill or behavior chain into its individual steps. You, the behavioranalyst, can: Do the task yourself and break it into constituent parts, Rely on an expert to tell you how they have task ­analyzed a similar chain of behaviors, or You may observe someone demonstrating the skill and describe their actions as a series of steps. More difficult behaviors may be broken into more steps or even multiple chains of behavior. For simpler tasks, or for clients that are more able to quickly complete steps, a shorter task analysis may be appropriate. For example, putting an IKEA cabinet together might take 98 steps (or more, it seems). One step might be to “screw the sides of the shelf together.” This direction might be attainable for some. For others, this particular direction might need to be task analyzed into, perhaps “hold the shelf as shown, pick up a screw that looks like this, insert the screw into this slot, pick up a phillips­head screwdriver (pictured), put the screwdriver end on the screw, turn clockwise.” Here’s a link to a task analysis on making the perfect martini (man I love ABA): http://behavioradvisor.ipower.com/TaskAnalysisMartini.html Use chaining to link individual isolated responses to create a complex behavior chain. Complex chains are broken down by steps (task analysis). Chaining is used to teach independent living skills, or add behaviors to an existing repertoire. It can be combined with other behavior change procedures like prompting, instructing and reinforcement Factors affecting performance of a behavior chain are: completeness of task analysis, length and complexity of the chain, schedule of reinforcement, stimulus variation and response variation

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C­06 Implement task analyzed training procedures

forward chaining

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Forward chaining is beginning with successful completion of the first step in a chain (prompted or unprompted) to access reinforcement. After the first step is mastered, the next steps are introduced in successive order, always beginning with the first step. Step 1, steps 1­2, steps1­2­3, 1­2­3­4, etc. The reinforcement for completion of one step is the introduction of the next step, and reinforcement is also given at the completion of the last step. Forward chaining would be best utilized when the initial steps are easier to complete, but the entire task is unlikely to be mastered without some repetition. Forward chaining may not be appropriate for tasks that need to be completed in the moment (everyone is hungry and you want to teach your son to make dinner, e.g.), as this method takes some patience and time.

Example: Getting to watch a television show means that a client needs to learn how to turn on the TV and get to the channel that their show is on. You task analyze this into: Pick up the Samsung remote (not others) Press power button Press the cable button Press “guide” button Search for channel 256 by scrolling down Press “select” Your client is able to do the first and second tasks without further assistance ­ you provide praise and model pressing the cable button. Next, the client starts again and is able to complete steps 1­2­3­4. You again provide praise and model the next step. On the third trial, the client is able to complete all steps and gets to watch her show and hear your praise.

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C­06 Implement task analyzed training procedures

backward chaining

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Backward chaining actually follows the steps of a chain forward, but with the behavior analyst or parent completing all except the last step. This method allows the entire chain to be observed and reinforcement to be delivered upon completion of the last step. After a client has mastered the last step, the behavior analyst completes all but the final two steps and so on. Example: Using our TV example from above, you would slowly model each step for the client until the last one. On this last step, you prompt and guide the client to the “select” button and they press it. They hear your praise and get to watch their show. On the next trial (perhaps at a commercial) you show the steps again, but stop at step 5 and ask the client to complete steps 5 and 6. Give them as much help as they need, but also allow them time and an opportunity to complete the tasks. Training continues in this fashion, until the client is able to complete the entire chain.

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C­06 Implement task analyzed training procedures

total task presentation

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Total task presentation uses prompting, as necessary, to complete all of the steps in a chain on every trial. This has the advantage, like backward chaining, of completing the chain. This is really a prompt fading procedure. As you guide/prompt a client through all steps, you gradually fade these prompts to allow the client to demonstrate the skill without them. Once the client has completed all steps without prompting, the task has been mastered.

Example: Again using the TV example, you would present all steps in each trial or attempt. Perhaps on the first trial, the client has trouble with steps 4 and 5. You assist only as much as necessary in order for them to continue and offer praise (and the show) only after all steps have been completed ­ with or without help. Each trial continues to allow the client to complete each response in the chain more and more independently until they are able to complete the entire chain.

Note: Visual task analyses and/or written instructions are often used in conjunction with chaining. These tools are also useful to help maintain behaviors after training has ended. For example, a step­ by­ step list of how to clean the kitchen can be a useful reminder, so that no steps are missed.

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C­07 Use discrimination training procedures.

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Mass Trial (MT): same prompt each trial, only trial choice offered

Mass Trial (MT) A series of successive teaching trials that ensure success on the part of the student. The mass trial phase begins with prompted trials, then the teacher systematically fades the prompt until the student can complete the request independently. If a teacher is requesting a stimulus (i.e., "cup") the teacher will request the "cup" several times in a row with nothing else on the table.

Distracter Phase-the teacher places the targeted item on the table with known or unknown distracters, but still only requests the targeted item. Still considered a mass trial.

Distractor Trial (DT): same prompt each trial, trial choice and two "unknown" choices

Random Roation (RR): one mastered choice and trial choice, rotating prompts

presenting 2 or more targets in random order and/or in random position

Expanded Trial (ET): trial choice and many mastered choices, rotating prompts

A series of teaching trials with distracters. The amount of distracters presented to the student is increased systematically. The distracter(s) can be a known or an unknown stimulus to the student. The expanded trial phase is important to build memory retention.

Distracters used in expanded trials can range from Nonverbal imitation gestures, Verbal Imitation targets, mastered receptive action targets, to known targets in the specific program you are teaching.

Maintenance/Generalization (M/G): use trial choice as mastered choice in next RR and ET

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C­07 Use discrimination training procedures.

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This is a good point to mention all four concepts of generalization and discrimination: Stimulusg generalization, stimulus discrimination, response generalization and response discrimination.

Stimulus generalization ­ Behavior that is evoked when encountering similar stimuli. Example: You say, “plane” when you see one, and your mother says, “Yes, that’s a plane.”When you see other flying objects you say “plane” ­ to which people say, “yes”, even if the planes are somewhat different.

Stimulus discrimination ­ Discriminative stimuli versus stimulus deltas. Example: As you grow up, people reinforce you saying “plane” when you see a plane (Discriminative stimulus). They correct you when you say, “plane” when you see a helicopter,balloon or bird. These are all stimulus deltas for saying “plane”. That is, seeing a helicopter and saying “plane” receives no reinforcement or receives punishment. Through this process, you learn to discriminate between “plane”, “helicopter” and “bird”.

Response generalization ­ Emitting functionally­ equivalent untrained responses. Example: When you are a young adult, you not only say “plane”, but “airplane”, “aircraft”,“airliner” and “airship” to communicate the same thing.

Response discrimination ­ Differential reinforcement versus extinction. Example: As an adult traveler, you tell people that you “need to catch a plane.” When you are on the plane, you read a brochure about the “airliner” that you are taking, and the pilot announces that the “aircraft” will be departing soon. As a result of hearing others speak and from being looked at strangely when you say “airbus”, you rarely say “airplane”, and almost never say “airship.” Some of the responses in this class continue to receive reinforcement, while others do not (extinction).

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C­07 Use discrimination training procedures.

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Discrimination Training: reinforcing occurrences of a behavior in the presence of one stimulus condition and not in the presence of another stimulus condition

Simultaneous: both stimuli are present at onceSuccessive: only one stimulus condition is present

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C-08Implement stimulus control transfer procedures.

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Discrimination training results in stimulus control when a behavior occurs more often in the presence of one stimulus condition than it does in the presence of another stimulus condition

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C-08Implement stimulus control transfer procedures.

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Stimulus control refers to the idea that a particular condition evokes a particular response. Forexample, if someone shows you two pictures and asks you which one is green (stimuluscondition), you choose the green one (correct response). In this case, we say that thepresentation of pictures and the question that was asked control the response, because eachtime you present these, the correct answer is given.

Sometimes something other than the stimulus that we want, is controlling the response. Anexample of this would be given the stimulus condition above. When two pictures are presented,a client may grab the one that she likes before a question is even asked. She might evenchoose the correct picture, but the response is not controlled by the correct stimulus (i.e. thequestion “Show me green”).

Given a situation such as this, the behavior technician needs to transfer the control of theresponse to the correct stimulus. Instead of grabbing the picture they want, the client will needto wait until the question is asked and choose the answer to that question. This can be done inmany different specific ways that will be part of an intervention plan. With the example above, atherapist or technician might move the pictures out of the client’s reach, repeat the trial and givethe correct response along with handing over the green picture. Trials of this nature would berepeated until the client appropriately waited and correctly responded to the question orquestions presented. This would transfer control of the response from the simple presentation ofthe pictures to both the presentation of the pictures and the question asked by providingreinforcement only for correct responding.

Again, the specific procedures for transferring control will need to be developed by yoursupervisor and yourself, so that the details accomplish the stated goal.

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C-09Implement stimulus fading procedures.

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Used to transfer stimulus control from prompted responses to natural stimulus and also to minimize number of error responses occurring in the presence of the natural stimulus

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C-09Implement stimulus fading procedures.

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Stimulus prompts operate on the stimulus or stimuli in order to cue the correct response.These are usually considered to be positioning, movement or pairing dimensions of the correctresponse with the stimulus.

Positioning: Putting the stimulus closer to the client in order to make it more obvious tochoose.

Movement: Looking at the correct response, tapping close to it or on it or otherwisecalling attention to the correct answer by movement of the stimulus or externalmovement.

Pairing: Making the stimulus and the correct answer the same color or shape, or someother similarity. Example: I like to think of Las Vegas. It gives an excellent example of signs with stimulusprompts. The “message” of these signs is, of course, “Look at me!” A digital sign that beginswith a small dot in the middle and expands to fill a giant screen, the sliding of a message in fromone side, lights flashing on the perimeter of the sign, a change of text colors and fonts, etc.These are all examples of stimulus prompts to encourage looking at and reading the sign.

Stimulus prompt fading is a gradual change in the stimulus prompt that eventually fades theprompt. Examples might be having a student trace a letter, trace a dotted­line letter and finallywrite the letter without the stimulus prompt. Again, the point of fading is to transfer control of thebehavior from the stimulus prompt to a more “natural” prompt such as someone verballyprompting you to write a letter.

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C­10 Implement prompt and prompt fading procedures

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Prompts are usually divided into two main categories. These are response prompts andstimulus prompts.

Response prompts do just what they sound like. They operate on the behavior that you wantsomeone to perform.

The three response prompts are:

1. Modeling This is a visual demonstration of an entire task or part of a task that allows those withimitation skills to attempt to reproduce the modeled behavior. This prompt is oftencombined with others and repeated until the desired response is emitted. For example,showing someone how to Waltz may involve modeling the steps, observing the learnersimitation, offering corrective feedback, repeating the modeling and/or offering physicalguidance to obtain a correct response of proper Waltzing.

Physical guidance Some partial or full physical guidance may be necessary in order to prompt correctbehavior. I say “necessary”, because this method of prompting is the most intrusive intoone’s personal space. This may be uncomfortable for some learners and some teachers.Physical prompting can lead to some confusion about the learner’s demonstration ofskills, as well. For instance, I read a progress report that indicated a student had mastered writing theirname, although it was not noted that this involved full physical prompting! This led toconfusion about the student’s actual skill (and was likely an inappropriate goal to beginwith).

Verbal prompting Verbal prompting is probably the most widely used prompt as it is most efficient,especially when a learner already has a skill in their repertoire. Verbal prompting not onlyincludes spoken words, but signs, written instructions or pictures (such as in a pictureschedule). Examples of verbal prompts might be a verbal request such as, “Take out the garbage,please” or a picture of a person walking a dog with the caption “Please clean up afteryour pooch.” You can imagine that the efficiency of this type of prompt is compromised ifa skill is not within a person’s current understanding. With the above examples, if aperson isn’t physically able to take out the garbage or has never done so, they will notbe able to demonstrate the skill without additional prompting. Also imagine that thepicture of a person walking a dog has a caption written in Russian. Unless you can readit, the prompt does very little, to no good in helping one decipher the meaning of thepicture.

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C­10 Implement prompt and prompt fading procedures

Response prompt fading

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Response prompt fading involves most­ to ­least prompting, least­ to­most prompting, graduatedguidance or a time delay. All of these fading procedures attempt to transfer control of theresponse from the prompt to the “natural” stimulus condition. Instead of taking the garbage outonly when someone asks you to, for instance, you might be reminded by the stimulus conditionof noting that today is Tuesday.

Most­to­least: The greatest amount of prompting necessary to assist the client inachieving mastery is used in the first trial and prompts are systematically faded until little to noprompting is necessary to elicit a correct response. This type of prompt fading is oftenassociated with errorless learning and ensures a high degree of successful completion of thedesired response throughout trials.

Least­to­most: This is used with a fixed time interval before prompts are offered. If acorrect response is emitted within this time period, reinforcement is offered. If there is anincorrect response, or no response, the trial is a “do over.” That is, the stimulus is presented and the least invasive prompt, such as a verbal prompt. If a correct response does not occur, thenthe trial is begun again with more prompting, such as a verbal and modeled prompt until acorrect response is given. Remember this fading procedure as the “do over” method.

Graduated guidance: This fading method is used with physical prompts. The idea is tostart with physical prompting and immediately fade to closely following and not touching theclient. A common example with this method is to physically prompt a client’s hand, moving to theforearm, elbow, shoulder and then no touching at all. Being closely available and able to correctresponses easily is what this fading procedure is about.

Time delay: This procedure increases the delay from a stimulus presentation to theresponse prompt. For example, a picture of a car is presented and a child is asked to name theitem. At first, the stimulus is presented at the same time as the vocalization of the answer by thebehavior analyst. That is, a 0­second trial. A 1­second delay in the prompt is then initiated sothat the picture of a car is presented and 1 second passes before a verbal prompt of /k../ isgiven. Another second is allowed before prompting with the answer “car.”When a client correctlyanswers, reinforcement is offered. Incorrect responses are usually corrected and a trial isrepeated with the previous level of delay before prompting. Using this procedure gives a clientan increasing amount of time to correctly respond. That is, it removes the prompt further fromthe stimulus presentation.

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C-10Implement prompt and prompt fading procedures.

Prompting

Hierarchy (most to least)

Inadvertent

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Prompting: cue or assistance to encourage a desired response

Hierarchy: physical>verbal>gestural>model> visual/positional/material

Inadvertent: accidental prompting

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C-10Implement prompt and prompt fading procedures

Response Prompts

Stimulus Prompts

Prompt Fading

Prompt Dependency

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Response: operate directly on the response (physical, verbal, model)

Stimulus: operate directly on the antecedent task stimuli to cue correct response (gestural, visual/positional/material)

Fading: moving down the prompt hierarchy

Dependency: requiring a prompt to perform a task

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C-11Describe how to implement generalization and maintenance procedures.Generalization-Examples

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Generalization: occurrence of behavior under different conditionsParticipants: engages in behavior another client is receiving reinforcement forSettings: at home, at school, communityPeople: responds to BI and parentsMaterials: knows red car, ball, paper etc.Behaviors: pulls weeds with hands and with spadeTime: uses toilet during the day and at night

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C­11 Program for stimulus and response generalization.

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I take this section to mean more than teaching these skills, but planning to both elicit them andunderstand what generalizations might occur as a result of your intervention; being prepared toexplain or change them.

Stimulus generalization : Once you are taught to respond to one stimulus, you might respond inthe same way given a different stimulus with some similar features (at least to you). Forexample, if you are taught to say, “Pleased to make your acquaintance” when introduced to anadult, you might meet a fellow child on the playground and say “pleased to meet youracquaintance”. In this example, the behavior analyst would have thought about the fact thatcertain conditions may be appropriate for the response “pleased to make your acquaintance”,but not others, such as meeting peers. Intervention could include different stimulus conditionssuch as meeting peers, formal occasions, casual occasions and the like. A behavior analystcould, instead, encourage a more generalizable or useful response for greeting others. Response generalization : Once you are taught to respond in one way, you may responddifferently to a similar situation. Using the above example, you might be initially corrected byyour peers and greet them with, “What’s up” or “Hey” rather than what you were taught. Theresponse changes, but still meets generally the same function. A behavior analyst would knowthis and plan the intervention to include a variety of responses that could be used to greetothers. Using these two ideas together in planning an intervention, assists in developing skills andteaching stimulus conditions that your client is likely to experience in his or her particularenvironment. Think about your client’s life after your intervention is completed.

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C­11 Program for stimulus and response generalization.

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Program for maintenance

Speaking of life after intervention...maintenance. From the defining of a target behavior to thefunctional assessment, to the intervention planning; maintenance should be on your mind.When you approach test questions, look for information that discusses the client’s naturalenvironment (i.e., outside the intervention sessions and after intervention is terminated).Support in the natural environment is necessary for your replacement behaviors to have along­lasting effect (generality).

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C-11Describe how to implement generalization and maintenance procedures.

Stimulus Generalization

Response Generalization

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Stimulus: extent to which performance occurs in environments different than training (settings, people, materials).

Response: extent to which a client performs a variety of functional responses in addition to trained response

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C-11Describe how to implement generalization and maintenance procedures.

Programming Generalization

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Natural reinforcement contingencies: transfer control from BI to naturally occurring stimuli

Sufficient exemplars: use multiple settings, people, and stimuli

Train loosely: vary non-critical dimensions of antecedent

Indiscriminate contingencies: use variable reinforcement schedules, delay reinforcement, or wait to catch client being good

Common stimuli: use natural stimuli

Mediate generalization: teach self-management

Train generalization: reinforce generalization when it happens

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C-11Describe how to implement generalization and maintenance procedures.

Maintenance

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The extent to which a client continues to perform mastered skills after a portion or all of an intervention has been terminated.A condition in which treatment has been discontinued or partially withdrawn.Checked every week, 2 weeks, or every month (depending on plan).

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C-12Explain how to assist with the training of stakeholders (eg., family, caregivers, other professionals).

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RBT will assist with training under supervision and should not train unless directly requested to by supervisor. Refer all questions to supervisor and let parents know RBT's are not authorized or qualified to answer questions about clients program.

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C­12 Assist with the training of stakeholders

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In order to plan for maintenance, you and your supervisor will have to work on training thosestakeholders (parents, teachers, guardians, supervisors, coworkers, etc.) to take over theintervention to the greatest extent possible. The major idea of this training is to continue toprovide reinforcement for newly mastered skills in order for these skills to continue. Rememberthat if a skill is not reinforced, it will not continue. This is especially true if the “old” ways ofbehaving are again allowed to be reinforced instead of the newly developed skill.