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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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_______________ is found throughout the peripheral and central nervous systems. It causes muscles to contract. It is involved in REM sleep, the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle, and memory. Degeneration of choloingergic cells in the entorhinal cortex and otherareas that communicate directly with the hippocampus is believed to underlie memory deficits associated with Alxheimer's disease. Two types, _______ receptors usually excitatory, while _____ receptors are ordinarily inhibitory. It appears that nicotine enhances alertness and memory by mimicking it.
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
nicotinic muscarinic |
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The _________ includenorepinephrine, epinephrine (adrenaline), and dopamine. These substances are involved in functions such as personality, mood, memory, and sleep. Low levels of _______ and dopamine are associated with some forms of depression, while escessive activity at dopamine synapses has been linked to Schizophrenia and Tourette's syndrome. ________ is also involved in the regulation of movement, and degeneration of their receptors in the substantia nigra and nearby areas underlies the tremors, muscle ridity, and other motr symptoms of parkinsons' disease.
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Catecholoamines
Norepinephrine Dopamine |
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_____ usually exerts an inhibitory effect and has been implicatd in mood, hunger, temperature regulation, sexual activity, arousal, sleep, aggression, and migraine headache. Eleveted levels contribut to Schizophrnia and autism, while low levels play a role in depression, suicide, PTSD, OCD and agression.
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Serotonin
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_______, an inhibitory nerotransmitter, has been linked to sleep, eating, seizure, and anxiety disorders. Degeneration of cells in the basal ganlia contributes to the motor symptoms of Huntington's disease.
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GABA - Gamma-aminobutric acid
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_______ acts as an exictatory neurotransmitter in many areas of the brain. It lays a role in learning and memory and, more specifically , in long-term potentiotion, a breain mechanism thta is believed to be responsible for the formation of long-term memories. __________ are inhibitory neuromodulators that lower the sensitivty of postsynapitc neurons to neurotransmiters. They have pain killing proerties "runners high"
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Glutamte
Endorphins |
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The central nervous system consists of the _________ and ____________.
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brain
spinal cord |
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Brain has three parts _______,_____,and________
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hindbrain
midbrain forebrain |
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The forebrain contains the _____, _______, _______, _______, __________
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Thalamus
Hypothalamus Limbic system basal ganglia cortex |
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The hindbrain contains _______, _______, and______
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Medullla
Pons Cerebellum |
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The ________ is made up of bundles of myleinated axons as well as dendrites, cell bodies, and interneurons. It carries information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of teh body, and controls simple reflexes that do nto involve the brain.
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Spinal Cord
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The brain and spinal cord are protected by three membranes ____, ____, and ______
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dura mater
arachnoid pia mater |
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_________ is caused by an obstruction of the flow o fCSF that leads to a build-up of fluid and enlargment of the ventricles.
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hydrocephalus
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The ____________ is made up of nerves that relay messages between the central nervous system and the body's sensory organs, musles, and glands. It is divided into the _____ and _____ nervous system.
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Peripheral
somatic autonomic |
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The ______ nervous system consists of sensory nnerves that carry information fron the body's sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information fron the CNS to the skeletal muscles. It governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.
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Somatic Nervious System
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The ______ nervous system is comprised of sensory nerves that convey signals from receptors in teh viscera to the CNS and motor nerves that carry signals from teh CNS to the smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands. Although it is associated ;rimarily with involuntary activities, biofeedback, hypnosis, and other techniques have shown that some can be brought under voluntary control.
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autonomic nervious system
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The autonomic nervious system is further broken down into _____ and ______.
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symapathtic and parasynpathetic
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The _________ branch of the ANS is associased with arousal and the expenditure of energy and tends to act as a unit. n reaction to an external threat, for instance it casues dilation of teh pupils, inhibition of peristaliss, dry mouth, seating, and increased blood pressour and heart rate in order to get ready to fight or flight. While the ______ is more specific in its actions like digenstion and conserving energy.
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sympathetic
parasympathatic |
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The development of the human brain involves five main stages 1) new cells are produced inside the neural tube beginning when the embryo is about 2-1/2 weeks, 2) Immature neurons migrate to their final denstination int eh brain 8 weeks, 3) nerons initially look very much like othe rcells of the body, develop axons and dnedrites, 4) the axons of teh nerons mylinate, which occurs when glial cells form, most postnatelly, 5) the timing depends onteh specific area of he brin, but most occurs postnatally.
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proliferation
migration differentiation mylination synaptogenesis |
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As the spinal cord enters the skull, it enlarges and forms the brain stem, which contains the medulla and the pons. These two structures plus the cerebellum make up the _____________.
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Hindbrain
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The ______ is important for balance and posture and, in conjuction with the basal ganglia and motor cortex, is vital to the performance of coordinated and refined motor movements. Damange to the cerebellum can produce _______, a condition involving slurred speech, severe tremors, and a loss of balance.
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cerebellum
ataxia |
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The _____ connects the two halves of the cerebellum and plays a role in the integration of movements in the right and left sides of teh body.
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pons
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All neural informatio that travels between the brain and the spinal cord passes through the ______, which contains the reticular formation.
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Midbrain
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The _______ extends fromthe spinal cord through the hind brand and midbrain into the hypothalamus in the forbrain. It consists of over 90 nuclie that are involved in various funcitons including respiration, coughing, vmiting, posture, locomotion, and REM sleep. The _____________ is part of it and is vital to consciousness, arousal, and wakefulness. It screens snensory input, especially during sleep, and arouses higher centers in teh brain whan important infomraiton must be processed.
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reticular formation
reticular activating system (RAS) |
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Damaage to the ___________ disrupts the sleep-wake cycle and can produce a permanent coma-like state of sleep.
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reticular formation
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The _____ consists of subcortical and cortical structures.
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forebrain
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The _________ structures of the forebrain include the thalamus, __________, basal ganglia, and ___________.
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subortical
hypothalamus limbic system |
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The _______ acts as a "relay station" and transmits incoming sensory information to the apropriate areas of the cortex for all the senses except olfaction. It is also involved in motor activity, language, and memory.
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thalaumus
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____________ involves atrophy of neurons in the dorsomedial necleus of the thalamus and mammilary bodies of the hypothalamus. This disorder is caused by a thiamine deficiency, ususally as the result of alcoholism, and involves severe anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation.
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Korsakoff Syndrome
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The ______ is one of the smallest brain structures but is involved in a broad range of vital functions including hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, body temperature, movements, and emotional reactions. It also monitors the body's internal states and intitates the responses needed to maintain homeostasis through its influence on the ANS and the pituitary and other endocrine glands.
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hypothalamus
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The ______________ is located in the hypothalamus and mediates the sleep-wake cycle and other ciradian rhythms. There is evidence that it is involved inteh seasonal affective disorder.
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suprachiasmatic nucleus SCN
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The _________ include the caudate nucleus, putamen, globs pallidus, and substantia nigra. These strugctures are important in planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movement and regulating the amplittdude and direction of motor actions.
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basal ganglia
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Several disorders involving prominent motor symptoms are associated with ___________ pathology including Huntingtons disaeas, Parkinson's disaeas, and Tourett'es syndrome. In addition areas of it have been implicaed in mania, depression, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and psychosis.
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basal ganglia
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The _______ is involved in some cogntive functions but is primarily associated with the mediation of emotion. It includes the amygdala and the hippocampus.
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limbic system
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The ________ integrates, coordinates, and directs motivational and emotional activities, attaches emotions to memories, and is involved in the recall of emotinally-charged experiences. The Kluber-Bucy syndrome was developed with lesions on it producing reduction of fear and aggression, increase docility, alter dietary havits, produce hypersexuality and psychic blindness.
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amygdala
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THe ______ is less directly implicated in emotions than other limbic system structures and is associated more with learning and memory.
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hippocampus
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In humans, the _____________ makes up more than 80% of the brain's total weight and is responsible for the regulation of a broad range of higher cognitive, emotional, and motor functions. It is divided into two ________ which are subdivided into four _______.
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cerebral cortex
hemispheres lobes |
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The ________ lobe occupies the major portion of the cortex and includes motor, premotor, and prefrontal areas. Damage to the ________ can result in a loss of reflexes and flaccid hemiplegia (muscle tone) in areas of the body centralateral to the damage.
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frontal lobe
primary motor cortex |
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Brocas area is located in the _______________.
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premotor cortex
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___________ is involved in speech production, and damage to this area produces expressive aphasia, which is characterized by difficulties in producing spoken and written language.
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broca's area
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The __________ is in is involved in a variety of complex behaviors including emotion, memory, self-awareness, and executive funcions. It's located in the frontal lobe. Lesions in this area are associatd with "pseudodepression", which involves apathy, lethargy, a narrowing of interests, reduced emotional reactions, reduced interest in sex, and impaired memory and attention. It is also associated with ________________ and is characterized by a loss of social tact, lack of empathy, impulsivity, sexual disinibition, and inappropriate jocularity. ___________ (reduced metabolism in the prefrontal cortex) has been linked to Schizophrenia, ADHD, and normal age-related cogntive declines.
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prefrontal cortex
pseudopsychopathy hypofrontality |
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The ______ lobe contains the somatosensory cortex, which is located on the postcentral gyrus and governs pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception, and gustation.
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parietal
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Electrical stimulation of the ______________ cortex elicits reports of warmth, tingling, or other sensations in different parts of the body.
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somatosensory cortex
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Common symptoms of parietal lobe damage include distrubances in the spatial orientation, ________ (inability to perform skilled motor movements in the absence of impaired motor funcitoning), and smatosensory agnosia.
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apraxia
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_______________ is the inabilty to recogize familiar objets by touch________, failure to recgnize parts of one own body__________, and inablity to recogize one's own neurological symptoms or other disorder__________.
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somatosensory agnosia
tactile agnosia asomatognosia anosognosia |
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The ________ lobe contains the auditory cortex, which mediates auditory sensation and perceptoin.
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temporal
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Lesions in the ________ cortex can cause auditor agnosia, auditory hallucinations, and other disturbances in auditory sensation and perception. ____________ is located in the doinant _________ lobe and is inovled in the comprehansion of language.
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auditory cortex
wernicke's area |
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The ______ lobe contains the visual cortex, which is responsible for visual perception, recognition, and memory.
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occipital lobe
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_______________ menas that the left hemisphere controls the funcitons of the right side of the body and vice-versa.
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contralateral representation
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The right and left hemispheres are connecte by several bundles of fibers, the larges of which is the ____________.
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corpus callosum
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Written and spoken lagnuage and logical, analytical thinking are _________ hempisphere funcitons, while the understanding of spatial relationships, readitivyt, and facial recognitions are ________ hemipshere functions.
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left
right |
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______ hemispher functions are, letters/words, language-related sounds, verbal memory spech/reading/writing/arithmetic and positve emotions. ____ hempshere are complex geometric patterns, facial regnition, music and other non-language sounds, nonverbal memory, gemetry, sense of dierction, and negative emotions.
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left
right |
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Young-Helmholtz _________ theory, states that there are three types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color (red, blue, or green). All other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these three receptors.
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trichromatic
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Hering's _____________ theory also postulates three distinct receptors: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black. According to this thoery, some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green, and so on; and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells produces the various colors tha we perceive. This theory is supported by the phenomenon of negative afterimages, which involes seeing an image of an objectin its complementary color after staring at it.
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opponent-process
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The tricromatic mechanism is believed to work at the ________ level, while an opponent-process mechanism of color vision is believed to operat in the __________.
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retinal
thalamus |
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Males are more prone to color blindness than famales. True or False
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True
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The primary olfactory cortex process and integrates olfactory signals, the _______ cortex is believed to be involved in teh conscious perceptoin of odors, and the _____ plays an important role in olfactory memory.
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orbitofrontal
amygdala |
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According the the _________ theory of pain, the nervous system can process only a limited amount of sensory infomraiotn at any one time. When too much informaiton is being recieed, cells in the spinal cord act as a gate that blocks some incoming pain signals.
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gate-control theory
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_________ is a rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality triggers a sensation in another sensory modality. For example, a person with this disorder might hear a color or tast a shape.
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synethesia
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_________ is the study of the relationship between physical stimulus magnitudes and their corresponding psychological snesations.
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psychophysics
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Several ________ laws have been developed to identify absolute thersholds - which is the minimum stimulus needed to produce a sensation_ and _________ thresholds - which is the smallest increment in stiumulus intensity needed to recongize a differnece.
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psychophysical laws
difference |
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A psychophysical law called ______ law, states that the more intense the stimulus, the greater the increase in stimulus intensity required for the increase to be perceived. It predicts that if one gram must be added to ten grams for an increas then 10 grams would be added to 100 grams.
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Weber's law
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An extension of Weber's law of psychophysics, the _______ law staes that physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations. In other words, a person's experience of stimulus intensity increases arithmeticlly as the stimulus intensity increases geometrically.
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Fechner's
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_________ law of psychophysics attemted to make up for weber's and fechners inabilty to work with extreme intensities. It involved asking subjects to assign number to stimuli proportional to their relative sensation - 3. This law makes it possible to predict, for instance, that doubling the intensity of a light less than doubles the sensation of the lights' brightness, while doubling the intensity of an electric shock more than doubles the physical sensation.
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Sevens' Power Law
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For memory the ________ lobes are essential for the encoding, storage, and retrieval of long-term declarative memories, witht he right and left lobes serving somewhat different funcitons.
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temporal
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The ____________ is responsible for the consolidation of long-term declarative memories (transferring from short to long)but not for the subsequent storage of those memories. Spatial memory -remembering location of items. Degeneration of neurons in the his area has been linked to memory loss associated with normal aging and Alzhemer's disease.
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hippocampus
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The _______ plays a key role of in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories. There is evidence that it is responsible for the recall of traumatic events and may contribute to the deelopment of PTSD.
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amygdala
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_________ has been implicated in short-term memory , episodic memory, and prospective memory.
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prefrontal cortex
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The _______ is involved in processing informaiton and transferring it to the neocortex. Damage to certain areas of it produces memory oss involveing antergrade amneisa, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation.
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thalamus
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The _______, ________, and _______ are structures that play a role in procedural memory (memory for sensorimotor skills) and implicit (unconscious nonintentional) memory.
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basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex.
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A neural mechanism _____________ refers to the greater responsivity of a postsynaptic neuron to low-intensity stimulation by a presynatpic neuron for hours, days, or even weeks after the presynaptic neuron has been barraged by high-frequncy stimulaiton. Implicated in long-term memory.
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long-term potentiation
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More recently genetic reserach has linked the neural mechanism _______ genes to alzheimers disease.
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ApoE4
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THe _______ theory on emotion stesses the importance of peripheral factors and proposes that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli. IN other words - you are afraid becaue your knees are shaking and your heart is pounding - . Support for theory comes from quadriplegic and paralegic studies.
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James-Lange theroy
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The ________ theory of emotion places greater emphais on the brain mechanisms that mediate emotion. It proposes that emotional and bodily reations to stimuli occur simulataneously as a result of thalamic stiumation and the cortex and the peripheral nervious system.
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cannon-bard theory
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The three areas of the brain associated with emotion include the _________, ________, and _________.
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amydgala
hypothalamus cerebral cortex |
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The ______ plays a role inthe perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and other emotions. It evaluates incoming sensory informaiton and determines its emotional importance. Immediate reaction to dangerous situatios. Electrical stimulaiton can produce a fear and rage resonse, while lesions can result in a lack of response to situations that would ordinarily elecit strong emotion.
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amygdala
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The ________ influence on the ANS and pituaitary gland, is involved inthe translation of emitions into physical responses
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hypothalamus
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Selye's _____________________ concludes that people respond to all types of stressful situations in the same manner and is medicated primarioy by the adrenal and pituitary glands and invlves thress stages. ___________, ___________, and ____________.
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general adaptation syndrome GAS
Alarm Reaction Resistance Exhaustion |
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At puberty, an increase in gonadal hormones influences the emergence of _____________ and the development of the reproductive system.
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secondary sex charicsacterist
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The system that produces the secondary sex characteristics is the __________ Axis.
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hypthalamic-pituitary-gonadal
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__________ refers to sex-relate differences in physical appearance, and the research has confirmend that the human brain is sexually dimorphic.
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sexual dimorphism
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________ refers to impaired language production and or comprehension as the result of brain damage.
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aphasia
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____________ aphasia also known as expressive, motor, and nonfluent aphasia is caused by damage to dominant left frontal lobe. Individuals with this disorder speak slowly and with great difficulty. Theiry speech is poorly articulated and they frequently omit conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, and the endings of noungs and verbs. They often exibit anomia (repeating phrases). Have trouble produing spoken and written language, but their comprehension of language is only somewhat impaired.
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Bronca's Aphasia
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_________ aphasia is also known as receptive, sensory, and lutent aphasia is cuased by damage to dominant left temporal lobe. People with this form of aphasia have trouble understanding written and spoken language and generating menaingful language. While their speech is rapid, seems effortless, and exhibits appropriate syntactical structure, it is largely devoid of content. They are unaware of menaingless.
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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Wernike's and Broca's area are connected by the arcuate fasciculus, and damage to this structure can produce _____________. This disorder does notsignificantly affect language comprehension but does result in anomia and impaired repetition.
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Conduction aphasia
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____________ aphasia is caused by lesions outside Broca's aand Wernicke's areas that disconnect these areas from other regions of the brain. If the dmange isolates only Broca's area, the individual has transortical motor aphisia, which is effortful speech, nonfluent, lack of spontaneous speech, and anomia. PEOPLE ARE ABLE TO TALK BUT HAVE OTHING TO SAY AND ARE UNABLE TO UNDERSTAND WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE.
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Transcortical Aphasia
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___________________ refers to a pattern of somatic an psychological symptoms that occur in up to 50% or more of individuals withmild traumatic brain injury. Common initial ysmptoms of PCS are headache, dissiness, nausea, blurred vision, and drowsiness.
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Postconsucssional syndrome
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______________ is an inherited degenerative disease that is transmitted b y a singel dominant gene. Involves emotional, cognitive, and motor symptoms, and in many patients, emotional and cogntivie symptoms appear first. Associated with a loss of GABA - secreting enurons and glutamate excitotixicity in the basal ganglia, especially in the caudate nucleus, Putamen, and globus pallidus.
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Huntington's Disease
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_____________disease is due to a progressive degeneration of dopamine-containing cells in the sustantia nigra. Although its cause is unknown some evidnce that exposure to herbicides, pestiides, and other toxins over an extended period of time plays a role. Positive symtpoms include tremors, muscle rigidity, and akthisia. Negative symtpoms include postural disturbances, speech difficulties, bradykninsia (slowed movement), and a mask-like facial expression.
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Parkinsons Disease
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__________ is a rapid deep-breathing attack that produces a drop in carbon dioxide, leading to respiratory alkalosis and cerbaral hypoxia. It is often triggered by anxiety or other emotional state and its symptoms incude chest pain, tingling and numbness in the hands and fet, dizziness, impaired concentration and memory, and tinnitus. Difficult to distinguish from coronary heart diseas. Can be alleviate by relaxation or in exteme cases by breathing into a paper bag or sedation.
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Hyperventilation
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___________ involves general muscle aches, tenderness, and stiffness fatigue, and sleep distrubances. May have a physical cause, but psychological factors also pplay a role and symptms are often alleviated to some degree by psychological treatment.s
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Fibromyalgia
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