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183 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Learning |
any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice |
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Reflex |
an involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice |
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Classical Conditioning |
learning to make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the response |
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Unconditioned Stimulus |
a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary and unlearned response |
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Unconditioned Response |
an involuntary and unlearned response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus |
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Neutral Stimulus |
a stimulus that has no effect on the desired response prior to conditioning |
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Conditioned Stimulus |
a previously neutral stimulus that becomes able to produce a conditioned response, after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus |
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Conditioned Response |
a learned response to a conditioned stimulus |
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Stimulus Generalization |
the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response |
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Stimulus Discrimination |
the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus |
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Extinction |
the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus or the removal of a reinforcer |
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Spontaneous Recovery |
the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occured |
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Higher-Order Conditioning |
occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus |
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Cognitive Perspective |
modern perspective in modern psychology that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning |
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Conditioned Emotional Response |
emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person |
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Vicarious Conditioning |
classical conditioning of an involuntary response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person |
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Conditioned Taste Aversion |
development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring only after one association |
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Biological Preparedness |
referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning |
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Operant Conditioning |
the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses |
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Law of Effect |
law stating that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend to not be repeated |
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Operant |
any behavior that is voluntary and not elicited by specific stimuli |
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Reinforcement |
any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again |
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Reinforcers |
any events or objects, when following a response, increase the likelihood of that response occurring again |
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Primary Reinforcer |
any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch |
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Secondary Reinforcer |
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars |
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Discriminative Stimulus |
any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement |
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Shaping |
the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior through successive approximations that lead to a desired, more complex behavior |
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Instinctive Drift |
tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns |
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Behavior Modification |
the use of learning techniques to modify or change undesirable behavior and increase desirable behavior |
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Token Economy |
the use of objects called tokens to reinforce behavior in which the tokens can be accumulated and exchanged for desired items or privileges |
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Applied Behavior Analysis |
modern term for a form of functional analysis and behavior modification that uses a variety of behavioral techniques to mold a desired behavior or response |
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Biofeedback |
using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control |
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Neurofeedback |
form of biofeedback using brain scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior |
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Latent Learning |
learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful |
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Insight |
the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly |
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Learned Helplessness |
the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past |
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Observational Learning |
learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior |
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Learning/Performance Distinction |
referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior |
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Memory |
an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage |
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Encoding |
the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems |
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Storage |
holding onto information for some period of time |
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Retrieval |
getting info that is in storage into a form that can be used |
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Information-processing Model |
model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages |
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Parallel Distributed Processing Model |
a model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections |
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Levels-of-Processing Model |
model of memory that assumes info that is more "deeply processed" or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time |
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Sensory Memory |
very first stage of memory, where raw information from the senses is held for a very brief time |
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Iconic Memory |
visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second |
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Eidetic Imagery |
the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more |
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Echoic Memory |
auditory sensory memory, lasting only 2-4 seconds |
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Selective Attention |
the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input |
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Working Memory |
an active system that processes the info in short-term memory |
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Maintenance Rehearsal |
practice of saying some info to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in short term memory |
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Elaborative Rehearsal |
a method of transferring info from STM into LTM by making that info meaningful in some way |
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Non declarative Memory |
type of LTM including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses |
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Anterograde Amnesia |
loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward |
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Declarative Memory |
type of LTM containing info that is conscious and known |
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Semantic Memory |
type of declarative memory containing general knowledge |
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Episodic Memory |
type of declarative memory containing personal info not readily available to others |
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Semantic Network Model |
model of memory organization that assumes info is stored in the brain in a connected fashion |
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Encoding Specificity |
the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related info that is available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved |
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Recall |
type of memory retrieval in which the info to be retrieved must be "pulled" from memory with very few external cues |
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Recognition |
the ability to match a piece of info or a stimulus to a stored image or fact |
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Serial Position Effect |
tendency of info at the beginning and end of a body of info to be remembered more accurately than info in the middle of the body of info |
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Primacy Effect |
tendency to remember info at the beginning of a body of info better than the info that follows |
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Recency Effect |
tendency to remember info at the end of a body of info better than the info that precedes it |
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Automatic Encoding |
tendency of certain kinds of info to enter LTM with little or no effortful encoding |
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Flashbulb Memories |
type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it |
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Constructive Processing |
referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered by new info |
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Hindsight Bias |
the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer info, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event |
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Misinformation Effect |
the tendency of misleading info presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself |
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Curve of Forgetting |
a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually |
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Distributed Practice |
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods |
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Encoding Failure |
failure to process info into memory |
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Memory Trace |
physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed |
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Decay |
loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used |
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Disuse |
another name for decay |
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Proactive Interference |
memory problem that occurs when older info prevents or interferes with the learning or retrieval of newer info |
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Retroactive Interference |
memory problem that occurs when newer info prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older info |
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Consolidation |
the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed |
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Retorgrade Amnesia |
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards |
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Autobiographical Memory |
the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story |
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Thinking |
mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand info and communicating info to others |
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Mental Images |
Mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality |
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Concepts |
ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities |
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Prototype |
an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept |
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Problem Solving |
process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways |
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Decision Making |
process of cognition that involves identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives |
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Trial and Error |
problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found |
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Algorithms |
very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems |
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Heuristic |
an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem (rule of thumb) |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
assumption that any object sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category |
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Availability Heuristic |
estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant info from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples |
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Functional Fixedness |
a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions |
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Mental Set |
the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past |
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Confirmation Bias |
the tendency to search for evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs |
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Creativity |
the process of solving problems by combing ideas or behavior in new ways |
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Convergent Thinking |
types of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic |
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Divergent Thinking |
type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point |
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Intelligence |
the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems |
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g Factor |
the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence |
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s Factor |
the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence |
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Triarchic Theory of Intelligence |
Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical |
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Analytic Intelligence |
the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving |
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Creative Intelligence |
the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems |
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Practical Intelligence |
the ability to use info to get along in line and become successful |
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IQ |
a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one's mental age by one's chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100 |
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Reliability |
the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people |
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Validity |
the degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure |
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Deviation IQ Scores |
a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15 |
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Intellectual Disability |
condition in which a person's behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age (mental retardation) |
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Gifted |
the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above |
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Emotional Intelligence |
the awareness of and ability to manage one's own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain goals, as well as the ability to understand emotions in others |
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Heritability |
degree to which the changes in some trait within a population can be considered to be due to genetic influences |
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Stereotype Threat |
condition in which being made aware of a negative performance stereotype interferes with the performance of someone that considers himself or herself part of that group |
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Language |
a system for combining symbols so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others |
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Grammar |
the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language |
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Phonemes |
the basic units of sound in language |
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Morphemes |
the smallest units of meaning within a language |
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Syntax |
the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences |
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Semantics |
the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences |
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Pragmatics |
aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others |
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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis |
the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language |
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Cognitive Universalism |
theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language |
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Human Development |
the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception to death |
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Longitudinal Design |
research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time |
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Cross-Sectional Design |
research design in which several different participant age-groups are studied at one particular point in time |
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Cross-Sequential Design |
research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed longitudinally |
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Cohort Effect |
the impact on development occurring when a group of people share a common time period or common life experience |
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Nature |
the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions |
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Nurture |
the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions |
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Genetics |
the science of inherited traits |
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DNA |
special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism |
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Gene |
section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements |
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Chromosomes |
tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA |
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Dominant |
referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait |
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Recessive |
referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene |
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Ovum |
female sex cell, or egg |
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Fertilization |
the union of the ovum and sperm |
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Zygote |
cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm |
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Monozygotic Twins |
identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo |
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Dizygotic Twins |
fraternal twins, occurring when two individual eggs get fertilized by separate sperm, resulting into two zygotes in the uterus at the same time |
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Bioethics |
the study of ethical and moral issues brought about by new advances in biology and medicine |
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Germinal Period |
first 2 weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining |
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Embryo |
name for the developing organism from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization |
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Embryonic Period |
the period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop |
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Critical Periods |
times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant |
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Teratogen |
any factor that can cause a birth defect |
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Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder |
the physical and mental defects caused by consumption of alcohol during pregnancy |
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Fetal Period |
the time from about 8 weeks after conception until the birth of the baby |
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Fetus |
name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby |
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Cognitive Development |
the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory |
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Schemes |
a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events |
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Sensorimotor Stage |
Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment |
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Object Permanence |
the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight |
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Pre operational Stage |
Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world |
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Egocentrism |
the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes |
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Centration |
in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features |
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Conservation |
in Piaget's theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object's nature |
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Irreversibility |
in Piaget's theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action |
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Concrete Operations Stage |
Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking |
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Formal Operations Stage |
Piaget's final stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking |
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Scaffolding |
process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable |
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Zone of Proximal Development |
Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher |
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Temperament |
the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth |
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Attachment |
the emotional bond between an infant and th primary caregiver |
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Self-Concept |
the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important significant people in one's life |
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Adolescence |
the period of life from about the age 13 to the early 20s, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult |
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Puberty |
the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak |
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Personal Fable |
type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm |
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Imaginary Audience |
type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are |
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Identity Versus Role Confusion |
stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self |
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Emerging Adulthood |
a time from late adolescence through the 20s referring to those who are childless, do not live in their own home, and are not earning enough money to be independent |
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Menopause |
the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a women's reproductive capability |
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Andropause |
gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of middle-aged males |
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Intimacy |
an emotional and psychological closeness that is bases o the ability to trust, share, and care, while maintaining a sense of self |
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Generativity |
providing guidance to one's children or the next generation |
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Authoritarian Parenting |
style of parenting in which parent is rigid and strict, showing little warmth to child |
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Permissive Parenting |
style of parenting in which the parent makes few, if any, demands on a child's behavior |
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Permissive Neglectful |
permissive parenting in which parent is uninvolved with child or child's behavior |
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Permissive Indulgent |
permissive parenting in which parent is so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits |
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Authoritative Parenting |
style of parenting in which parent combines warmth and affection with from limits on a child's behavior |
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Ego Integrity |
sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life possessing the ability to let go of regrets |
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Activity Theory |
theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way |
