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170 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology (Definition)
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Psychology is the study of mental processes and behaviour in humans.
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Behaviour (Definition)
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Any observable action made by a living person.
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Mental Processes (Definition)
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An individuals thoughts, feelings that are personal and cannot be directly observed.
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How are Mental Processes and Behaviour linked?
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Mental Processes and Behaviour are interrelated as mental processes are often interpreted by observing behaviour.
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What is the Nature v Nurture debate?
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The debate involves whether we are born with our thoughts, feelings and behaviour (via genes) or whether we acquire them through life experiences. Also called (Heredity v Environment)
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Scientific Method
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Refers to the systematic approach for planning, conducting and reporting research which involves collecting empirical evidence.
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Empirical Evidence
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Empirical evidence is data that is collected by direct observation, or more frequently in psychology, by experimentation.
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Generalisation
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A generalisation is a judgement about how widely the finding of a research study can be applied.
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Research Method
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A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study or investigation to collect data.
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Sample
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A sample is a subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a wider range of research interest.
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Methods for investigating brain function |
External recordings (EEG), Still pictures (CAT scan, MRI), dynamic pictures (FMRI, PET) |
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Factors that affect behaviour, emotion and thought |
Physical activity, psychological and physical responses to recreational drugs |
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General Intelligence theorists |
Galton, Spearman |
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IQ and mental age theorists |
Binet , Simon,Terman |
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Empirical approaches to intelligence theorist |
Wechsler |
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Multiple intelligence theorist |
Gardner |
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Emotional intelligence theorist |
Goleman |
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Sample
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A sample is a subsection, or smaller group, of research participants selected from a wider range of research interest.
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Population
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The term population refers to the entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn.
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Sampling
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The process of selecting participants for a sample is called sampling.
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Representative Sample
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A representative sample is a sample that is approximately the same as the population from which it is drawn in every important participant characteristic.
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Random Sampling
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Random Sampling is a sampling procedure that ensures that every member of the population of research interest has a genuinely equal chance of being selected as a participant for the research study.
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Stratified Sampling
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Stratified sampling involves dividing the population to be sampled into different subgroups, or strata, then selecting a separate sample from each subgroup (called stratum) in the same proportions as they occur in the population of interest
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Random Stratified Sampling
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Random Stratified Sampling involves selecting a random sample from each stratum of a stratified sample
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Random Allocation
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In random allocation, also called random assignment, participants selected for the experiment are just as likely to be in the experimental group as the control group.
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Case Study
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A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group or situation.
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Advantages of a Case Study
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- Case studies can be a valuable source of hypotheses for further research- There is no manipulation of variables
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Disadvantages of a Case Study
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- Can't test cause and effect relationship- Small sample size- Susceptible to biased information from participant or observer
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Observation
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Refers to any means by which a phenomenon is studied, including the data that represents a phenomenon such as scores or written responses.
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Observational Study
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Involves collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs.
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Naturalistic Observation
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Naturalistic Observation involves a naturally occuring behaviour of interest is viewed by a researcher in such a way that the presence of the researcher has no influence on the observed behaviour.
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Participant Observation
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This involves the researchers actually participating in the activity being observed and may make themselves viewable as being part of the group or situation being observed.
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Non Participant Observation
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When researchers try to conceal their presence while making observations.
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Advantages of Observational Studies
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- Naturalistic Observation enables researchers to gain more accurate information about the typical behaviours of organisms.- Naturalisic observation doesn't require the co-operation of the participants being observed.
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Disadvantages of Observational Studies
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- Sometimes it requires alot of patience for the behaviour to occur as the participants aren't under any instructions- It can be difficult to determine the cause of behaviour- Observer bias
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Data
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In research, the information collected is called data
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Qualitative Data
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Qualitative Data involves information about the 'qualities' or characteristics of what is being studied.E.g. Verbal Statements, Written Statements, Descriptions made by researcher
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Quantitative Data
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Quantitative Data includes numerical information on the 'quantity' or amount of what is being observed. E.g. Percentages, Numbers, Averages, Times
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Ethics
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Ethics refers to the standard that guide individuals to identify good, desirable or acceptable conduct.
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Roles of Experimenter - Ethics
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- Take into consideration the ethical issues involved- Is responsible for ensuring that research is conducted in a manner that doesn't harm participants- Abide by the participants rights
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Confidentiality
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Any information that may identify details of their involvement in a study (for example, test results or personal data) cannot be revealed unless their written consent is obtained.
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Voluntary Participation
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Ensure that the participants voluntarily participate, they shouldn't be forced to.
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Withdrawal Rights
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The experimenter must inform participants of procedures that are going to be used, that they are free to participate, decline to participate or to withdraw at any time
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Informed Consent
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Where possible, participants must be informed of what the study is about and the reasons behind it.
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Deception
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In cases where giving participants full information of the study is deemed inappropriate because it might tamper the results, experimenters must ensure there is no distress involved and participants are given all details at the end of the study.
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Debriefing
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Debriefing involves clarifying each participant’s understanding of the study after it has been conducted. This includes correcting any mistaken attitudes or beliefs that participants may have about the study. At the end, experimenter must also provide an opportunity for participants to obtain results and conclusions.
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Sensation
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Sensation is the process in which our sense organs and receptors detect and respond to information that stimulates them.
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Perception
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Perception refers to the process in which we give meaning to sensory information, resulting in our personal interpretation of that information.
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Organisation
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Organisation in Visual Perception involes assembling or arranging the features of a visual image in a meaningful way. How we actually go about organising visual information partly involves the use of visual perception principles.
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Interpretation
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Interpretation is the process of giving meaning to visual information so that we can understand what we are looking at.
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Difference between Organisation and Interpretation?
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Organisation assists our interpretation of objects and events, but it does not always explain how we actually ‘make sense’ of visual information.
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Visual Perception Principles
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Visual Perception Principles are 'rules' that we apply to visual information that assists in organising and interpreting the information in meaningful ways. These principles can be broken into three categories; Gestalt Principles, Depth Principles and Perceptual Constancies.
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Gestalt Principles
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Gestalt principles refer to the way in which we organise the features of a visual scene by grouping them to perceive a whole, complete form.
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The Gestalt Principles (What are they?)
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- Figure Ground- Similarity- Proximity- Closure
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Figure Ground
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When we use figure–ground, we organise visual information by perceptually dividing a visual scene into a ‘figure’. The line of seperation between the figure and the ground is known as the contour.
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Closure
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Closure refers to the perceptual tendency to mentally ‘close up’, fill in or ignore gaps in a visual image and to perceive objects as a whole.
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Similarity
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The principle of similarity involves the tendency to perceive parts of a visual image that have similar features — such as size, shape, texture or colour as being whole.
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Proximity
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The principle of proximity is the tendency to perceive parts of a visual image which are positioned close together as belonging together in a group.
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Depth Perception
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Depth perception is the ability to accurately estimate the distance of objects and therefore perceive the world in three dimensions.
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Depth Cues
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Depth cues are sources of information from the environment (external cues) or from within our body (internal cues) that help us to perceive how far away objects are and therefore to perceive depth.
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Pictorial Cues
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Pictorial Cues are named so because artists use them to create depth and distance on two dimensional surfaces. The five pictorial cues are- Linear Perspective - Height in the Visual Field- Interposition- Texture Gradient- Relative Size
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Linear Perspective
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Linear Perspective is the apparent convergence or 'joining' of two parallel lines as they recede into the distance.
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Interposition
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Interposition occurs when one object partially blocks or covers the other and the partially blocked object is perceived as being further away.
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Texture Gradient
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Texture Gradient refers to the gradual reduction of detail that occurs in a surface as it recedes into the distance, compared to a surface that is close and perceived in fine detail.
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Relative Size
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Relative Size refers to the tendency to perceive the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer. However we take into account what we know about the objects and use our past experience to judge the size.
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Height in the Visual Field
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Height in the visual field refers to the location of objects in our field of vision whereby objects that are located closer to the horizon are perceived as being more distant to objects that are closer to where you are looking from.
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Perceptual Constancies
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Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable and unchanging despite any changes that may occur to the image cast on the retina. Three perceptual constancies involve size, shape and brightness.
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Size Constancy
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Size constancy involves recognising that an object’s actual size remains the same, even though the size of the image it casts on each retina changes.
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Shape Constancy
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Shape constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its shape despite any change in shape of the image of the object on the retina.
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Brightness Constancy
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Brightness constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness in relation to its surroundings, despite changes in the amount of light being reflected from the object to the retina.
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Perceptual Set
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Perceptual Set is the predisposition to perceive something with what we expect it to be.
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Context
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In Visual Perception, context refers to the setting or environment in which a perception is made.
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Motivation
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Motivation refers to processes within us to activate behaviour that we direct towards achieveing a particular goal. For example when we see what we want to see rather than what is actually there.
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Emotional State
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Our emotional state, can also influence the way in which we perceive visual information. For example, a child who is afraid of being in their darkened bedroom may interpret the shadow of their dressing gown hanging on the back of the bedroom door as a ghost, or the teddy bear sitting on the end of the bed as a monster.
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Past Experience
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Past Experience refers to our personal experiences throughout our whole life. Our unique combination of past experiences can lead to many individual differences in perception.
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Culture
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Culture refers to the way of life of a particular community or group that sets it apart from other communities or groups. Experience with or in a particular culture can influence the way in which we process and interpret visual information.
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Visual Illusion
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A visual illusion is a misinterpretation (distortion or mistake) of real sensory information.
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Muller Lyer Illusion
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The Muller Lyer Illusion is a visual illusion in which one of two lines of equal length, each of which has opposite shaped ends, is incorrectly perceived of as being longer than the other.
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What is mental health?
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Mental Health is when a person has effective psychological functioning, is not distressed, is able to cope with everyday life and has thoughts, feelings and behaviours that is typical of them and normal for the society or culture they belong in.
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What is a mental illness?
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A mental illness is often described as psychological dysfunction, usually involving distress, impaired ability to cope with everyday life, and thoughts, feelings and/or behaviour that are not typical of the person and may also be inappropriate in their culture or society.
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Labelling (What it is)
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Labelling is the process of classifying and naming a mental illness following a diagnosis.
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Labelling (Advantages)
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Helps clinical psychologists recognise and describe a mental illness. Assists in identifying appropriate treatment, therapy and support Ensures common understanding amoung mental health professionals Assists communication
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Labelling (Disadvantages)
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Can influence how the person thinks about themselves Can influence the way in which they are viewed by others in the community Creates misunderstandings about behaviour Labels stick with them for life
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Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
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CBT is a therapy process that involves changing the way a person thinks about an event or situation in order to alter their feelings and behaviour.
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Three Main Functions of Nervous Systems
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- Receive Information- Process Information- Respond to Information
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Receptor Cells
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Specialised nerve cells located within sense organs such as the eyes, ears and the skin.
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Two Main Divisions of Nervous System
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- CNS (Central Nervous System)- PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)
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Central Nervous System
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The CNS is the network of nerves and neurons that make up the brain and psinal cord. Its main role is to process information provided by the sensory systems and other parts of the body and to activate appropriate actions.
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Brain
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The brain is an intricate network of nerve tissues (clusters of neurons) that plays a vital role in processing information received through nerve pathways from the body and in directing actions within the body. Often called the master organ.
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Spinal Cord
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The Spinal Cord is a long column of nerve tissue that extends from the base of the brain and is encased in the spinal column. The spinal cord links the brain and the parts of the body below the neck.
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Two Main Functions of the CNS
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- To pass sensory information from the PNS to the brain - To pass motor information from the brain to the PNS
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Spinal Reflex
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A spinal reflex is an automaticall occurring response to a stimulus without the info initally being processed by the brain. The nerves in the spinal cord initiate a response without the brain having to first.
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Peripheral Nervous System
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The peripheral nervous system is the entire network of nerves that transmits information to and from the CNS. The PNS includes all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord.
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Two Divisions of the PNS
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- Somatic Nervous System- Autonomic Nervous System
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Somatic Nervous System
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The SNS is a network of sensory nerves that carry information received at sensory receptor sites to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the muscles that control movements of the body. Also called Skeletal Nervous System
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Autonomic Nervous System
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The ANS is a network of nerves that carries messages between the CNS and the heart, lungs and other internal organs and glands. The ANS regulates, or controls, the functioning of internal organs automatically.
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Two divisions of the ANS
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- Sympathetic Nervous System- Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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The SNS arous the body when we experience and extreme emotion or feel threatened.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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The PSNS calms or restores the body to the normal state of functioning after an extreme threat has passed.
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Neuron
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A neuron is an individual nerve cell that transmits information within the body, combining it with information from other sources. Neurons have specialised functions, some neurons specialise in transmitting information from sense organs to the CNS. Other neruons do the opposite. Some neurons carry information between neurons.
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Number of Neurons in the Body
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Between 100 and 150 billion neurons.
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Soma
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The soma or cell body is the structure that determines whether the nueron will be activated and thus transmit messages to other neurons. Within the soma is the nucleus.
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Nucleus
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The nucleus contains biochemical information that provides the energy to keep the neuron functioning.
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Dendrite
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A dendrite is a short, thin nerve fibre that is specialised to detect and receive neural information. Like an antenna, dendrites receive incoming info from other neurons and transmit this to the soma.
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Axon
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An axon is a single, tubelike, fluid filled extnesion that transmits messages from the soma to the other cells in the body including other neurons, muscles and glands. Most neurons only have one axon.
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Axon Terminal
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At the end of each axon are branches called axon terminals. Each axon terminal has a small knob like swelling at the tip of it called a synaptic button. Axon terminals are located close to the dendrites of other neurons.
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Synaptic Button
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The synaptic button is a small structure like a sac that stores chemicals called neurotransmitters.
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Myelin Sheath
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The axons of many neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is a white, fatty covering that helps insulate the axon from axons of other neurons. Without it, interference may occur. However it is not a continious coating along the full length of the axon. It occures is segments that are seperated by small gaps called nodes. Neurons wrapped in myelin communicate their messages 20 times faster than unmyelinated neurons.
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Sensory Neurons
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Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) are specialised cells that receive information from both the external and internal environemtn. They transmit this info to the CNS. There are different types of sensory neurons, each of which only respond to a particluar type of stimulation.
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Motor Neurons
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Motor Neurons (efferent) transmit messages from the CNS to the muscles, glands and organs. They enable muscles to move, cause glands to secrete and actvate internal organs.
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Interneurons
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Interneurons provide neural links between sensory and motor neurons and have a specialised role of carrying and intergrating messages between sensory and motor neurons. Interneurons only exist in the CNS.
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Role of Interneurons
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When information arrives at the CNS, an interneuron receives, organises and intergrates the information.
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Synaptic Gaps
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The synaptic gap is a gap which seperates each neuron from another neuron.
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Synpase
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The synapse is the point of communication between neurons. The synpase includes the synaptic gap and a small area of the membrane of each of the connecting neurons.
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Neurotransmitter
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A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance thatis made by the neuron and enables communication between neurons. The neurotransmitter works by binding itself to the receptor site on the receiving neuron.
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Two Neuroimaging Techniques
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- Positron Emission Tomography (PET)- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
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What PET and fMRI do?
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These scanners can detect, record and measure brain activity, and they also enable production of computer generated images for researchers to visually see what has been scanned.
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
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EEG is an electronic device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity that spontaneously and 'naturally' occurs in the human brain.
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Stereotyping
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The process of grouping, or 'fitting' people into a category based on what we know about them is called stereotyping. The people who stereotype, carry the belief that the people they are stereotyping all have the same characteristics.
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Stereotype
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A stereotype is a collection of beliefs that we have about the people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of that group.
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Advantage of Stereotyping
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Because it is not possible for us to intimately know everyone we meet, we use stereotypes to assist knowing how we should react to new people we meet.
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Disadvantages of Stereotyping
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A problem with stereotyping is that they can be inaccurate. Stereotypes are often based on incorrect or inadequate information. Another disadvantage of stereotyping is that it can lead to stigmatisation.
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Stigma
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A stigma is a negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way.
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Prejudice
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Prejudice is often defined as holding a negative attitude towards members of a group, based solely on their membership of that group.
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Discrimination
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Discrimination refers to the positive or negative behaviour directed towards a social group and its members.
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Difference between discrimination and prejudice
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The basic difference between prejudice and discrimination is that prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is behaviour arising from prejudice.
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Racism
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Prejudice and discrimination directed against people who are part of a particular racial or ethnic group
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Sexism
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Prejudice and discrimination against men or women
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Ageism
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Prejudice and discrimination against people based on their age
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Sustained Contact
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Ongoing contact either directly or indirectly over a period time.
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Mutual Interdependence
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Involves two groups who are prejudiced and dislike each other, and when placed in a situation when they are dependent on each other.
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Superordinate Goal
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A superordinate goal is a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides any existing goals which each group might have.
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Equality of Status
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Refers to the importance of the group when compared with another group, as perceived by members of the group making the comparison.
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Cognitive Interventions
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Involves changing the way in which someone thinks about prejudice.
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Three Steps for a Congitive Intervention to be effective
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1. Individual must decide that their prejudiced attitude and behaviour is wrong. 2. They must hold fast to their non prejudiced beliefs. 3. Individuals must learn to block and suppress prejudical reactions and replace them with non prejudical ones.
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Anti Social Behaviours
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Anti-social behaviours are those which are considered unacceptable for both adults and adolescents. Examples of anti-social behaviours include cheating, overeating and bullying others.
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Pro Social Behaviour
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Any behaviour intended to help or benefit another person, group or society.
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Kitty Genovese Case
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Kitty was violently stabbed one early New York morning and while she tried to escape, the attacker caught her and stabbed her numerous times. Her pleas for help woke 38 neighbours however none came to her aid and only one called 911. They all watched as the attacker left Kitty to die on the footpath.
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Bystander Effect
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The bystander effect is is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help another person in need when other bystanders are present, or believed to be present, as compared to when they are alone. Furthermore, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely any one of them is to help.
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Social Norms Definition (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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Social norms are standards, or ‘rules’, that govern what people should or should not do in different social situations.
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Two Social Norms (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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Reciprocity Norm Social Responsibility Norm
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Reciprocity Norm (Social Norms - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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The reciprocity norm prescribes that we should help others who help us. However, for a variety of reasons, some people are unable to reciprocate when they have been helped. For example, children, elderly people and disabled people are often unable to give as much help as they receive. In such cases, the social responsibility norm influences us to help.
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Social Responsibility Norm (Social Norms - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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The social responsibility norm prescribes that we should help those who need help because it is our responsibility or duty to do so.
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Three Personal Factors (Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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- Empathy - Mood - Competence
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Empathy (Personal Factor - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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We are more likely to help someone in need of help if we feel empathy for them. Empathy is the ability to identify with and understand another person’s feelings or difficulties.
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Mood (Personal Factor - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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Generally, the results of research studies also indicate that a good mood increases helping, whereas a bad mood will sometimes increase and sometimes decrease helping behaviour.
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Competence (Personal Factor - Pro Social Behaviour Influences)
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Our actual or perceived ability to help can be influence whether or not we help in a specific situation, as well as the type of help we might offer.
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Altruism
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Altruism refers to pro-social behaviour focused on the wellbeing or benefit of others without any thought to personal gain or reward.
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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Diffusion of responsibility is the belief that, in a situation where help is required and others are present, one or more other people will or should take responsibility for helping.
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Audience Inhibition
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Not helping another person because of a fear of appearing foolish in the presence of others.
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Smoke Filled Room Experiment
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Latane and Darley used 60 male uni students and they were asked to fill in a questionnaire in a room that had a one way mirror attached. There were three experimental conditions. - a participant was in the room alone- one participant was in the room together with two confederates who had been instructed to not react when help was needed- a group of three participants were in the room together and all three were ‘true’ participants.
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Results of Smoke Filled Room Experiment
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Of the participants who were alone in the room (condition 1), 50% left the room to report the smoke within two minutes and 75% had reported the smoke within 3½ minutes. 62% Participants in conditions 2 and 3 continued filling out the survey throughout the whole six minute period.
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Cost Benefit Analysis
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Involves an individual weighing up the personal and social costs of helping against the benefits of helping.
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Anti Social Behaviour
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Anti-social behaviour is any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the wellbeing or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or society
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Determinants of Liking |
Proximity, similarity, reciprocity |
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Non verbal communication. |
Gesture, body language,physical distance, facial expression,touch and smell |
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4 lobes |
Temporal, occipital, Frontal,Parietal |
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Galton |
First To make intelligence tests, believed intelligence is a general ability |
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Spearman |
General intelligence and specific intelligence |
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Binet |
Developed first standardised intelligence test, reasoning, perceiving , imagination |
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Formula for IQ |
Mental age / chronological age x 100 |
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Terman |
Made the test Moreno appropriate for Americans and adults |
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Wechsler |
WPPSI- III , WISC IV , WAIS IV |
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Gardner |
Multiple intelligence, look mate listen Vegemite bread is incredible no exceptions |
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Goleman |
To be aware, control and express ones emotions and handle relationships empathetically and judiciously |
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Four branches of EI |
Perceiving, reasoning, understanding and managing |
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4 constructs of EI |
Self awareness, self regulation ,social skill,empathy, motivation |
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Attention |
Selected, divided |
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Brainwaves |
Alpha ( relaxed) , beta ( alert) , Theta (Drowsy) , delta (SLEEP) |
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Three levels of groups dunphy |
Dryads, cliques, crowds |
