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241 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Topical Foci of Personality Psych
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Psychological Triad:
how people think, feel and behave |
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Similarities to Clinical Psych
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1) when patterns of personality that are extreme, unusual and cause problems
2) try to understand the WHOLE person, not just parts of a person |
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Goal of Basic Approach
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1) Must search for specific patterns - ways of tying together different observations
2) limit yourself to certain observations |
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Goal of Trait Approach
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Focus efforts on the ways that people differ psychologically - how these differences may be conceptualized and measured
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Goal of Biological Approach
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Understand mind in terms of body - anatomy, physiology, genetics, evolution
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Goal of Psychoanalytic Approach
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Learning of the unconscious mind
- nature and resolution of internal mental conflict |
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Phenomenological Approach
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Conscious experience of the world, their phenomenology
- can lead to humanistic psychology approach... how conscious awareness can produce uniquely human attributes (creativity, free will, anxiety) - can lead to cross-cultural psychology... degree to which psychology and the experience of reality may vary across cultures |
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Learning Approach
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the ways people change their behavior as a result of reward, punishment, and other experiences in life
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Lewin's Formula
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B = f[P,E]
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Bergman's Formula
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B = f [A,B,C, or D]
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How is personality defined in Lewin and Bergman's formulas?
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Personality variables are internal and they should exert relatively consistent influence over time
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Aim of Personality Psychology
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1) Explain behavior
2) Predict behavior 3) Modify behavior 4) address the psychological triad of thought, feeling and behavior of psychological functioning of whole individuals |
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What is RELIABILITY?
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- measurements reflect what you are trying to assess and are not affected by anything else
- repeatedly giving the same results = reliable |
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What undermines reliability?
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1) low precision of measurements
2) state of participant in the study 3) state of experimenter 4) environment in which the study is done |
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What enhances reliability?
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1) being careful
2) constant scripted procedure for all participants 3) measure something that is important 4) aggregation or averaging... random influences cancel each other out with more and more data |
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Types of Reliability
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Temporal Consistency
- Test-retest reliability - Split-half reliability - Alternate/parallel forms of reliability Inter-observer Reliability - coders or observers - (total agreements)/(total observations) |
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What is Validity
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- degree to which a measurement actually reflects what one thinks or hopes it does
- for it to be valid, it MUST be reliable ... but a reliable measure is not necessarily valid - theories must be tested, the process of testing a theory behind a construct is: Construct Validation --> validity of independent variable AND validity of dependent variable |
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Types of Validity
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1) Construct Validity - relationship between different operationalizations of same variable/construct
2) Predictive Validity - focus on particular test/measurement 3) Face validity |
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Internal Validity
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valid within the study
- how immersive is the situation |
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External Validity
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valid outside of the study itself
- how realistic is the situation |
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BLIS
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B: ehavior
L: ife outcome I: nformant report S: elf report |
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Why is there often a correlation between informant reports and an individual's observed behavior
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- Expectancy Effects (Self-Fulfilling Prophecy), do well because you are expected to do so
- Third Variables: something that is unrelated that is affecting results - Demand characteristics |
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Situationists: what arguments have they put forth to question the existence of a stable and defining inner core/personality
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- perceivers imagine personality
- language, stereotypes, and base rates create illusion of personality - social roles, situational forces, and external pressures are misinterpreted as internal traits - internal forces pale in comparison to external ones |
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How do internal and external forces interact to determine behavior according to interactionist integrations of situationist and personologist positions?
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1) traits drive behavior in relevant situations
2) individuals self select into situations 3) situations moderate trait expressions 4) consistency varies among individuals |
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Stages of scientific method
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1) make empirical & systematic observations
2) organize observations into a theory 3) derive testable hypothesis 4) gather data 5) update data based on findings |
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What makes a theory compelling?
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1) testable
2) internally consistent 3) broad (explain more phenomena) 4) precise 5) parsimonious 6) Generative 7) Useful (applied value, improve human life, predict social outcomes) |
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Significance Testing
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something statistically significant? did it happen by chance?
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Correlation
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relationship between two variables
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P-Value
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less than 5% then it is statistically significant
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Moderator Variable
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a variable that affects the relationship between two other variables (intentional)
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Confound
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external factors that influence results negatively (not intentional)
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Experimental method: how does this allow for inferences in causation?
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It controls variables, therefore there are no confounds
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Third Variable problem: how do researchers attempt to address it?
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- in correlational studies, when two variables, A and B, are found to be positively or negatively correlated, it may be that changes in an unmeasured third variable, C, are causing the changes
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Type I vs Type II Errors
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Type I Error: believe there is a correlation when there is not
Type II Error: don't see the correlation when there is |
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Demand Characteristics
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Participant is influenced by researcher
- changes answer - acts differently |
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Projective vs Objective tests
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Projective Test: involve ambiguous stimulus (ink blot)
Objective Test: little room for interpretation |
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Nomothetic vs Idiographic approaches
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Nomothetic
- tendency to generalize, explain objective phenomena - consistency among individuals Idiographic approach - tendency to specify, understand the meaning of unique, subjective phenomena - understanding uniqueness of individuals |
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Empirical Method
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1) gather lots of items
2) group of participants - divided into groups you wish to study, need a control/normal group 3) administer test to participants 4) compare answers given to you by the different groups of participants 5) results are cross validated |
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Rational Method
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-the basis to come up with items that seem directly, obviously and rationally related to what the test developer wishes to measure
- for rational constructed , s-data personality test to work four conditions must hold true: 1) each item must mean the same thing to the person who takes the test as it did to the person that wrote it 2) person who completes the form must be able to make an accurate self-assessment 3) person who completes the tests must be willing to report his self-assessment accurately without distorting it 4) all items must be valid indicators of what the tester is trying to measure |
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Criteria for establishing accuracy in Person Perception
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- self-judgement = truth criterion
- consensus - behavior : accurate if it correlates with behavior |
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What aspects of judge, target, and trait contribute to accuracy in perceiving others?
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Judge - no biases
Target - no biases Trait - observable |
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• Accuracy in thin slice research – what cues or thin slices (physical attributes, nonverbal behavior, environment) have been valid or diagnostic sources of person judgments? Which cues provide the most insight into which traits?
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Gut feeling, faster reactions are usually more accurate
- think too much, accuracy goes down |
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Which traits allow for valid use of cues, which are harder to assess?
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- homosexuality is easy
- extraversion is easy - openness to experience is harder |
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RAM model
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R: elevant
A: available D: etect U: tilize |
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Cardinal Traits
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RARE
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Central Traits
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vary in quantity and relevance among individuals
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Secondary Traits
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Consistent but narrow in behavioral influence ("likes decaf")
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Facets of authoritarianism and associated outcomes/behaviors
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• Implications for social problems
§ Theorized as the basis of racial prejudice and even fascism • Authoritarian Character § Built by a society that has too much freedom · Nazi Germany (demise of catholic religion and rise of capitalism) · The person avoids frightening personal choices, turn to an external authority § Someone who enjoys giving orders • RWA Scale (Right-Wing Authoritarianism) § Authoritarian Submission · Tendency to be obedient and submissive to established leaders of the government and other important institutions § Authoritarian Aggression · Tendency to act with aggressive hostility toward anybody perceived as deviant or a member of an outgroup · anyone who is described by authorities as someone to be despised § Conventionalism · The tendency to follow traditions and social norms that are endorsed by society and by the people in power • Is an individual-difference construct § Tries to explain which individuals |
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Example of Single Trait approach
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-integrity tests
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Example of Many Trait approach
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- california Q sort
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Example of Essential Trait
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- Cattel's Big Five
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Big Three (Eysenck)
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Eysenck
- most important traits should be heritable - most important traits should be associated with particular aspects of physiology or brain functioning - most important traits: extraversion, neurotiscism (unstable emotionality), psychoticism (blend of aggressiveness, creativity and impulsiveness) |
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Big Three (Tellegen)
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- multidimensional personality questionnaire --> organized three "superfactors":
1) positive emotionality (extraversion) 2) negative emotionality (neuroticism) 3) non-constraint |
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Jack Block's Ego Control
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"ego resiliency" (psychological adjustment)
- high ego-control = overcontrolled people - low ego-control = undercontrolled people... act on impulse - ego control = impulse control |
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Trait stability over lifespan
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Trait stability increases as you get older
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Amygdala: Function
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Emotion
- anger - fear |
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Hippocampus: Function
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processing memories
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Hypothalamus: Function
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- connected to everything
- nerves that extend throughout the brain - secretes hormones |
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Frontal Cortex: Function
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- crucial for uniquely human aspects of cognition
--> ability to plan ahead and to anticipate consequences |
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ACC: function
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- serves a conflict monitoring system
- looks for discrepancies among cognitions and searches for more information to resolve conflict |
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Neurotransmitters VS Hormones
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Neurotransmitters:
- travel across synapses, which are in your brain - levels associated with different personality traits Hormones: - biological substances - travel through bloodstream |
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Dopamine VS Serotonin
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BOTH ARE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Dopamine: - turns motivation into action - mechanisms that allow brain to control body movements Serotonin: - inhibits emotional impulses - don't have enough, you are angry, sensitive to rejection |
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BIS: Functions, attentional foci, emotions, brain regions, and physiological reactions
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- stopping something that seems like a threat, pays more attention to punishment and non-rewards
- functions to interrupt ongoing behavior, to facilitate processing of threats and preparing responses - focuses on anxiety - High BIS, greatest ACC activation during no-go trials --> shows that there is conflict between behavior and thoughts... if to interrupt ongoing behavior or continue - High BIS --> aroused, vigilant |
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BAS: functions, attentional foci, emotions, brain regions, and physiological reactions
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- system that tells you when to go
- engages activity towards reward or away from threat - sensitive to reward, non-punishment - engages action - focuses on goals - dopaminergic neurotransmitter system (pre-frontal cortex) - greater BAS associated with baseline frontal cortical asymmetry |
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BIS and BAS: how they affect personality
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High Avoidance (BIS) and High Approach (BAS)
--> Neurotic High Avoidance (BIS) and Low Approach (BAS) --> introverted High Approach (BAS) and low avoidance (BIS) --> extroverted Low Approach (BAS) and Low Avoidance (BIS) --> stable |
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Physiological and Psychological functions of cortisol
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Physiological Process
- levels regulated by hypothalamus and pituitary gland - hypothalamus sends corticotropin, releasing hormone to pituitary gland - pituitary produces ACTH - ACTH stimulates adrenal gland, results in cortisol production Psychological Functions - stress hormone... prolonged cortisol activation = lots of stress - associated with physiological and psychological health functioning --> metabolism --> can inhibit immune system functioning --> anti-inflammatory --> can influence cardiovascular system --> cognitive and affective processes linked to depression |
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Cortisol: What elicits production?
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○ Uncontrollable threats to social self
○ Uncontrollable: decouples effort at social preservation and outcome ○ Social Self Preservation Theory § System of biological processes supports motive to maintain social self § Monitors for threat to self esteem, status § Coordinates behavioral responses to cope with threat □ Threats include: situations requiring displays of competence and other socially valued traits (otherwise lose self esteem/status) § Social exclusion elicits cortisol |
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Cortisol: Health Effects
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○ May lead to chronic, uncontrollable social threats, social rejection, stigma
○ Retains fat, stress ○ Suppresses immune system ○ Develop hypertension or diabetes |
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What the relationship between personality, physical longevity, and physiological indicators of stress among individuals who moved frequently in childhood?
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• Introverts are more stressed out if they move during childhood and they don't live as long
• Residential mobility as a source of stress or stimulation? • Extroverts may even be stimulated (positive reaction) by moving around a lot (reduces production of cortisol) |
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testosterone; how it is released within the body
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○ HPG axis steroid hormone
○ Levels regulated by pituitary gland and hypothalamus ○ Hypothalamus sends GnRH hormone to pituitary gland ○ Pituitary produces LH and FSH ○ LH stimulates leydig cells to produce testosterone |
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Behavioral correlates of testosterone; why it is released within the body
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○ Associated with dominance behaviors
§ Intended to gain or maintain a high status □ Especially in periods of social instability |
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Genetic Factors involved with Testosterone
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○ Twin studies suggests that genes explain 66% variance in men's T and 41% in women's
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Environmental factors involved with testosterone
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○ Fluctuates during chronic stress, competition, relationship status
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Effects of status and competition on physiological stress response
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○ How does basal T interact with social status to produce changes in cortisol (stress) and behavior
○ Real-world dog agility competition ○ Mixed sex sample of dog handlers - victory and defeat "conditions" effect on cortisol and behavior ○ Predicted that high basal T P's would repeat task after victory because it allowed for accrual of status and high basal T P's would not want to repeat after loss |
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Studies involving Testosterone
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○ Study 1
○ Saliva Sample § 90 minutes before competition, 20 minutes after results posted § Chewed gum to stimulate salivation § Hormones assayed for T and cortisol ○ Results § Men □ High T men rose in cortisol after defeat (more stressed) □ Dropped after victory □ Low T men did not differ § Women □ No interaction effect □ Only drop in cortisol after winning (less stressed) ○ Study 2 ○ Intelligence Test (puzzles) - lab § Female P's only § No interaction before or after competition § Head to head (not as many people) § Collect saliva before and 15 minutes after competition § Complete several rigged puzzles (random assignment to winning and losing) § Choose to repeat puzzle with same participant or switch to questionnaire on food, music and entertainment preferences? § Results □ Losers with high testosterone levels have a higher change in cortisol □ Women who |
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Fight or Flight
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• Fight or Flight
§ Sympathetic nervous system § Releases catecholamines (hormones) - epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) into bloodstream § HPA stimulates release of cortisol § Most research on f/f response has been done on males, especially male rats § Taylor et al. propose this sex difference could be due to less of a reliance on f/f ○ Successful stress response passed on to progeny, making fight or flight an "evolved" response (natural selection) ○ Females played a greater role in rearing offspring, so adaptive response for females would include protecting child along with self ○ High maternal investment should lead to selection of female stress response that maximizes survival of both - tending and befriending |
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Tend and Befriend
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○ Tending
§ Caring for offspring § Blending into environment - alternative response when running away is difficult ○ Befriending § Effective use of social group to fend off threats § Creating social networks to provide support |
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Oxytocin (in relation to Tend and Befriend)
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§ enhances relaxation
§ decreases sympathetic activity, thereby counteracting fight or flight response § appears to be greater as a response to stress in females § may explain why in response to acute stress, female rats less likely to freeze than males, less fear response to heat, more likely to emerge into novel territory and explore § administering oxytocin to rats led to decreased pain sensitivity, lower blood pressure, less cortisol, estrogen associated w/ reduced anxiety in females § Promotes maternal and affiliative behavior § Possibly at the core of tending response § May calm female and promote tending to offspring □ Breastfeeding women are calmer and more social, oxytocin levels correlated w/ calm reported □ Also implicated in non-maternal behavior - women w/ high basal levels of oxytocin reported ® Less interpersonal distress ® Fewer interpersonal problems ® Quicker to recover from social stressors □ Whereas fathers tended to withdraw afte |
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Tend and Befriend (Studies and gender differences)
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§ Befriending
□ Group living provides eyes to detect predators and strength in numbers □ Females had much to fear from human males like rape and abuse of children □ Suggests that women would lean on each other to survive those threats □ Rat studies ® Male rodents stress in crowding, female rodents are calm in terms of cortisol ® Prairie voles prefer same-sex cage companions under stress □ Human desire to affiliate stronger among females under stress, esp. with other females ® Before stressful events, woman chose to wait alone rather than with unfamiliar male □ Adult Women ® Maintain more same sex close relationships than men ® Mobilize more social support in times of stress ® Turn to female friends more often than spouses relative to men ® Provide more frequent social support ® More engaged in social networks □ Women more collectivist and men more individualistic - cross-cultural generalizability ® In favor of evo |
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SUPEREGO
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- Socially appropriate actions
- opposite of ID |
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Id
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- primitive, animal instincts
- irrational desires |
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Ego
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- reason and good sense
- mediator (balance between superego and Id) |
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Cathexis
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- investment of psychic energy into satisfying needs
- intense longing/desires |
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Anticathexis
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- superego expends energy to inhibit primitive desires and unacceptable/inappropriate objects
- Ego and Superego work together to ease anxiety - original need displaced to safer object |
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Instincts according to Freud
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- derived from biological needs (pleasure principle)
- 4 characteristics: SOURCE (bodily deficiency e.g. food), AIM (removal of defiency e.g. eat), OBJECT (experience that reduces deficiency e.g. food), IMPETUS (determined by magnitude of deficiency e.g. time w/o food) |
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EROS
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- life instinct
- libido, preservation of life - hunger |
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THANATOS
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- stimulates one to return to inorganic state
- ultimate steady state, no bio needs - derivative = aggression ---> cruelty, murder, suicide |
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MAO - monoamine oxidase
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- regulates neurotransmitters
- increases with age... as you get a stable identity - possibly linked to sensation seeking (negative correlation) ---> higher MAO in women lower on sensation seeking ---> low MAO = sensation seeking... may lead to ADHD, antisocial, borderline, etc. |
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DRD4 - D4 dopamine receptor
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- high levels associated with novelty/sensation seeking
- injected into mice, became more exploratory ---> associated with migration |
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Exotic VS Erotic theory of sexual orientation
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1) Biological foundations... genes, hormones
2) Childhood personality... childhood temperament 3) Social Roles ... sex typical/atypical activity, gender of playmates 4) Emotions... feeling different/exotic or similar to those of same gender 5) Innate Response... physiological arousal of opposite/same sex peers 6) Sexual Orientation... erotic attraction to opposite/same sex peers |
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Anxiety - according to Freud
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- from birth trauma
- due to internal/external conflicts - psychic conflict: ego must find compromise for competing demands - 3 types: Realistic, Neurotic, and Moral anxiety |
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Freud's Stages of Development
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1) Oral Stage... immediate gratification
2) Anal Stage... self-control 3) Phallic Stage... identify with same sex 4) Genital Stage... balance love & work |
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Psychological Determinism
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Everything happens in a person's mind, and therefore everything a person thinks or does, also has a specific cause
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DENIAL - Defense Mechanism
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- refusal to acknowledge or failure to see a source of anxiety
- denying loved one's death |
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REPRESSION - Defense Mechanism
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- anticathexis... banishing past
- banishing past from present awareness - e.g. Rape |
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IDENTIFICATION - Defense Mechanism
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- Affiliating with a person, group, or institution perceived as illustrious (e.g. child identifying with parent)
- how the superego develops... sees what is socially acceptable |
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ALTRUISTIC SURRENDER - Defense Mechanism
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- vicariously identifying with someone else
- usually the "someone else" is morally superior |
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UNDOING - Defense Mechanism
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- ritual to undo wrong act
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REACTION FORMATION - Defense Mechanism
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- repression of objectionable, forbidden thoughts/impulses
- form opposite identity - e.g. person with a porn fetish becomes town censor |
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PROJECTION - Defense Mechanism
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- attributing a feared or undesirable trait to someone else
- projecting the trait onto someone else - e.g. see sadness due to dog's death in someone else |
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RATIONALIZATION - Defense Mechanism
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- validate your actions by creating a "rational" reason for doing so
- e.g. trickle down theory of tax breaks for the rich |
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INTELLECTUALIZATION - Defense Mechanism
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- make something anxious, not anxious
- turn into a thought that is cool and abstract |
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DISPLACEMENT - Defense Mechanism
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- replacing one object of emotion with another
- e.g. if you get fired from work, you take your frustration on your dog by hitting it |
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SUBLIMATION - Defense Mechanism
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- forbidden impulses find alternative outlet
- transformed into constructive, creative behaviors |
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Empirical Evidence for Defense Mechanisms
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- sublimation and displacement overlooked in cognitive emphasis
- other mechanisms react after failure to repress --> "try not to think of the white bear" |
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Critique of Freud
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1) too complex
2) depends on case studies - not generalizable 3) vague definitions 4) untestable 5) sexism |
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Why study Freud?
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- UNIQUE PERSPECTIVE!... focused on ideas that are underepmhasized elsewhere
-->conflicting motives causing anxiety -->childhood experience --> determinism --> role of the unconscious - INFLUENCE --> on modern conceptions of human mind -->on practice of psychotherapy |
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JUNG: Attitudes
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Psychological Types
-INTROVERT: quit, imaginative, more interested in ideas than ppl -EXTROVERT: sociable, outgoing, interested in people |
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JUNG: Functions of Thought
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Thinking, Feeling, Sensing and Intuiting
- Rational: thinking, feeling - Irrational: sensing, intuiting balance is IDEAL! |
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Jung: Libido
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Creative life force, energy behind psyche
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JUNG: Principle of Equivalence
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amount of psychic energy is fixed
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JUNG: Principle of Entropy
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tendency for energy to equalize across elements within a system... psychic balance is difficult to achieve
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JUNG: Principle of Opposites
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goal of life is to seek balance
- Unconscious VS Conscious - Rational VS Irrational - Feminine VS Masculine - Introversion VS Extroversion |
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JUNG: Components of Personality
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1) EGO - all consciousness
2) Personal Unconscious -repressed or forgotten info 3) Collective Unconscious - all human history |
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JUNG: Archetypes
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inherited predisposition to respond emotionally to certain aspects of the world... from universal experiences
- PERSONA: social mask - ANIMA: prototype of female, femininity - ANIMUS: prototype of male, masculinity - SHADOW: the animal within, "dark" side |
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Neo-Freudians
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- less emphasis on sex
- libido interpreted as creative energy - general motivation toward life and creativity |
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Horney: response to Freud's Penis Envy
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- disagree with penis envy and desire to be a male
- "women are damaged creatures" = implausible and objectionable - women may envy men, but due to freedom and structure of society rather than because of biological desire/needs |
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ERIKSON: stages of development
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- not all conflicts are unconscious
- more emphasis on conflicts at each stage rather than libido |
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ERIKSON: Stage 1: BASIC TRUST VS MISTRUST
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1) BASIC TRUST VS MISTRUST (Oral Stage) ... learn when needs will be met, ignored or overindulged
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ERIKSON: Stage 2: AUTONOMY VS SHAME
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2) AUTONOMY VS SHAME (Anal Stage)... learn self control; learn bodily functions, language and authorities
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ERIKSON: Stage 3: Initiative VS Guilt
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3)INITIATIVE VS GUILT (Phallic)... fantasize about life as an adult; develop sense of right and wrong from adults & self
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ERIKSON: Stage 4: Industry VS Inferiority
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4) INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY (Latency Period)... develop skills and attitudes to succeed in social world
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ERIKSON: Stage 5: Identity VS Identity Confusion
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5) IDENTITY VS IDENTITY CONFUSION (Genital)... choose values and goals that are consistent, personally meaningful and useful
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ERIKSON: Stage 6: Generativity VS Stagnation
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6) raise and nuture children for next generation
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ERIKSON: Stage 7: Integrity VS Despair
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- regret mistakes or do they feel that they have gained wisdom throughout life?
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Attachment: Psychological Goal
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- focuses on the patterns of relationships that are consistently repeated with different partners throughout life
- patterns learned in early childhood, reinforced in self-fulfilling manner throughout adulthood - BASIS OF LOVE: risky environment in which human species evolved made us develop a strong fear of being alone due to dark, dangerous places... motivates us to desire for protection from someone else |
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Primary Attachment
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child develops two beliefs:
1) attachment figures will be reliable 2) whether he/she is one whom attachment figures will respond to in a helpful way |
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Attachment: Ainsworth: 3 Types of Children
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1) Anxious Ambivalent... caregivers are inconsistent; as adults, obsessed with romantic partners
2) Avoidant... children rebuffed repeatedly; cold distant attitude 3) Secure... develop confident faith in themselves and caregivers; long-term, trustful relationships |
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Attachment: Two Theory Model
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1) Anxiety
2) Avoidance |
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EXISTENTIALISM: themes
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dread, boredom, alienation, freedom, absurdity, nothingness
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EXISTENTIALISM: Challenges
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- neither scientific knowledge nor moral reasoning is suffice to explain human existence
- what does it mean to exist and be a conscious being? - cannot be defined through categories such as nature or culture |
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EXISTENTIALISM: Perspectives
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- identity is created through existence itself, "one who becomes"
- NETZSCHE: "god is dead" ... moral human=self trained herd animal; moral norms emerge to produce conformity - SATRE: relating to others (social life) produces alienation; third person perspective is objectifying; institutionalized power define "natural" human perspective; angst... from making difficult choices |
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EXISTENTIALISM: Solutions
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1) Escape angst!! conform and accept society's values or be an outcast and retreat to unexamined life
2) Confront meaningless existence... recognize freedom of defining one's path and values |
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Terror Management Theory
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- anxiety with death --> anxiety with vehicle to death (body)
- all humans strive to survive while knowing the inevitability & uncertainty of death - world view, self-esteem, and beauty buffer death-related anxiety |
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Kelly's Personal Constructs
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- people = scientists... seek clarity and understanding; reduce uncertainties
- personal constructs = make up personality; verbal labels applied to events after interpreting experiences; predictions about reality; trial & error creates personality - constructive alternativism... constructs constrain and control behavior |
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Types of Corollary's : Construction Corollary
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1) Construction Corollary - we anticipate
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Types of Corollary's: Experience Corollary
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2) Experience Corollary - people use and revise their constructs
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Types of Corollary's: Choice Corollary
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3) Choice Corollary - choose alternative construct that promises most extension of system
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Types of Corollary's: Dichotomy Corollary
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4) constructs are dichotomous (e.g. generous VS stingy)
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Types of Corollary's: Fragmentation Corollary
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5) system in "flux" - inconsistency
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Types of Corollary's: individuality
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6) individual differences in constructing events
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Types of Corollary's: Sociality
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knowing someone involves insight into their personal constructs
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Kelly: Application of Constructs to psychotherapy
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- reconstruction/re-evaluation of construct system
- Fixed Role Therapy: act w/ new characteristics for two weeks; new constructs become a reality |
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Rogers: Perspective on Human Nature
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- self-actualization: one basic striving & tendency to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experience of the human being
-person can only be understood from a phenomenal field... conscious experience; all unconscious activities sum up to consciousness -basic need to ACTUALIZE... maintain and enhance life; goal of life is to fulfill this need |
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Maslow: Perspective of Human Nature
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Hierarchy of needs
1) Basic physiological needs... food, water, etc. 2) Safety, security, comfort, sex 3) belonging, social acitivity 4) status, self-esteem 5) self-actualization... only occurs if all other needs are met first |
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Rogers: interpersonal factors related to human flourishing
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- Unconditional Positive Regard: from important people in your life, especially in childhood
- Conditions of worth: develop these if you do not have unconditional positive regard; feel like people only value you if you are smart, attractive or good; LIMIT the way you act and think -Self worth, Self-image and Ideal self |
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Maslow: Characteristics of Self-Actualizing
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- clearly aware of reality and yourself
- perceive the world accurately - anyone from ANY background can become fully functioning person -Acceptance and Realism: self-actualized people have realistic perceptions of selves and others - Problem centering: concerned with problems outside of themselves -Spontaneity: can conform and can be open to unconventional - Autonomy and Solitude: need for independence and privacy - Continued Freshness of Appreciation: continual sense of appreciation of world - Peak experiences: experience moments of intense joy, wonder, awe and ecstasy |
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Csikszentmihalyi: Why doesnt increase in affluence result in greater happiness?
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1) increased expectations... due to habituation
2) comparisons... compare yourselves to the richest 3) material goods are not always sufficient... other aspects of life such as family and friends are important |
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Csikszentmihalyi: Flow Experience
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- ultimate happiness
- no other motive other than bringing you enjoyment - worth doing for its own sake even though it may have no consequence - happiness depends on whether you are able to derive flow from whatever you do |
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Csikszentmihalyi: Characteristics of Flow
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1) people know what they are doing moment by moment
2) able to get immediate feedback (from activity) 3) ability matches the level of opportunity [equal levels] |
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Lyubomirsky: Contributors to chronic levels of happiness
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1) interventions... virtues such as gratitude, forgiveness and self-reflection can bring about enhanced well-being
2) motivation and attitudinal factors... successful pursuit of life goals, take an optimistic stance 3) greater happiness achieved over time (older ppl are happier than younger) 4) Genes... affects the kinds of experiences one has or seeks and as a result, affects happiness |
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Lyubomirsky: Set Point
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central or expected value within person's set range... reflects personality traits: extraversion, arousability, etc.
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Lyubomirsky: Intentional activity
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things people do and think in their daily lives... e.g. exercise
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Lyubomirsky: Habits
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regularly initiating.. helps to get over the "hump"
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Lyubomirsky: Engagement
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actively engaged in activity ... initiating and maintaining acitivity
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Lyubomirsky: Variation in activity
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reduce adaptation, retains potency
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Empiricism
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- all knowledge comes from experience
- people are blank slates - contents of our mind are created by the contents of the world |
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Associationism
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- any two things become mentally associated if they are repeatedly experienced close in time
- cause-effect relationships |
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Hedonism
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- people learn for two reasons:
-->seek pleasure --> avoid pain |
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Utilitarianism
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- best society is one that creates the most happiness for the most people
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Behaviorism: Critiques
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- ignores motivation, thought and cognition
- implies that personality is a sum of everything one does - most research based on animals - ignores social dimension of learning - treats organism as passive - RATIONALISM: structure of mind determines experience of reality |
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How do behaviorists define personality?
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we can only know what we see and we can see everything we need to know
behavior is a function of one's environmental situation |
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Operant VS Classical Conditioning
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OPERANT
-individual's voluntary response to environmental stimulus - organism operates on its world - reinforcers (makes behavior more likely) and punishments (makes behaviors less likely) CLASSICAL - events become associated not only because they occurred together, but the meaning of one event has changed the meaning of the other - from reflex to association -->First order conditioning - neutral stimulus (CS- bell) associated with unconditioned stimulus (US- food) -->natural response (UR- salivation) transfers to neutral stimulus (CR - salivation) -----> second order conditioning: transfer CR from CS to new neutral stimulus (CR, the person that brings the food) |
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Thorndike Box VS Skinner Box
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Thorndike:
- cats in a box - could only escape by doing a specific action (pulling wire, pressing bar) - food nearby - cats began to escape quicker Skinner - rats and pigeons - pressed lever for food pellet - pigeon hits bar at steadily increasing rate |
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Positive Reinforcement
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- add reward
- increases behavior |
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Negative Reinforcement
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- taking away aversive stimulus
- increases behavior |
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Positive Punishment/ Response Cost
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- add aversive stimulus
- decrease behavior |
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Negative Punishment
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- taking away pleasant stimulus
- decrease behavior |
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Law of Effect
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ASSOCIATION
- responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular association become more likely to occur again in that situation (association) - responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation (association) |
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Law of Exercise
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- law of use: more often an association is used, the stronger it becomes
-law of disuse: longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes |
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Which schedule of reinforcement is most effective?
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Variable Ratio Schedule - response is reinforced after unpredictable number of responses
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Why does Fixed Ratio Schedule result in drop-off after reinforcement is administered?
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- participant knows when reward is coming due to steady reinforcements
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Gradual VS Insight Learning
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Gradual
- accumulation of stimulus-response associations Insight - mental representations - insight into our past experiences that make us able to solve problems that we werent previously able to |
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Dollard and Miller: Habit Hierarchy
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- behavior you are most likely to perform at a given moment resides at the top of your habit hierarchy
- least likely behavior is at bottom of hierarchy - effect of rewards, punishment, and learning is to rearrange the hierarchy |
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Dollard and Miller: Drive and Motivation
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Drive
- state of psychological tension that feels good with tension is reduced - pleasure comes from satisfying need that produced drive PRIMARY DRIVES - food, water, physical discomfort, sexual gratification, avoidance of physical pain SECONDARY DRIVES - positive drives for love, prestige, power - negative drives such as avoidance of fear and humiliation |
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Dollard and Miller: Drive-Reduction Theory
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- for a reward to have the power to encourage the target behavior, the reward must satisfy a need
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Dynamics of Approach VS Avoidance Conflict
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5 Assumptions
1) an increase in drive strength will increase the tendency to approach or avoid a goal 2) whenever there are two competing responses, the stronger one will win out 3) the tendency to approach a positive goal increases as one gets closer to goal 4) the tendency to avoid a negative goal increases as one gets closer to goal 5) tendency 4 is stronger than tendency 3. Avoidance gradient is steeper than approach gradient. |
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Dollard and Miller: Frustration-aggression hypothesis
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- frustration is the natural biological reaction of any person when blocked from a goal ==> results in aggressive behavior
- the more important the goal, the more aggressive the behavior |
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Dollard and Miller: two types of aggression
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Hostile
- intends harm as its primary goal... e.g. yelling at a child to make them feel bad Instrumental - intends harm as a means (instrument) to another goal... e.g. yelling at a child to stop them from drawing on walls |
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Rotter: Expectancy Value Theory
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- if you do something, you will attain your goal (Specific and General... date asking vs life)
- behavioral decision are determined by not just the presence or size of reinforcements, but also by beliefs about the results of the behavior |
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Bandura's Self-Efficacy
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- perceived probability that you can do something in the first place
e.g. someone with a snake phobia, does not believe that he/she will ever be able to conquer phobia - Self-efficacy: belief about what you are CAPABLE of doing |
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Self-Referent Processes
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Self-reflection and Self-regulation
- observe own performance - evaluate with personal standards (social/personal/collective comparison e.g. B grade) - self evaluative response... satisfaction or dissapointment - condition tangible rewards on performance markers |
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Self-referent effect
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tendency for individuals to have better memory for things that relate more to themselves in comparison to material that has less relevance to the self
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Processes of Learning that do not involve conditioning or reinforcement
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1) Observational Learning: modeling through observation
2) Reciprocal Determinism: person, environment and behavior all interact as one learns |
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Self-Schema
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- ideas about our characteristics and capabilities, affects what we do
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Reciprocal Determinism
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-person, environment and behavior all interact as one learns
- interactive process - relative influence of each factor varies - how people shape environments, not passive, people choose what shapes them |
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Interactionism
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- situation <--> personality
- effect of a person variable may depend on the situation and vice versa Lewin's Formula B= f(P,E) |
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Self Efficacy Beliefs: predictors of performance
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- judgment of capacity to execute behaviors
- provide foundation for motivation, well-being and personal accomplishment ---> optimism versus pessimism ---> self motivation and perseverance despite obstacles ---> vulnerability to stress and depression - better predicts accomplishment then do previous performance, knowledge or skills !!!! |
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Learned Helplessness: stimulus-response
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- aversive stimulus is presented, response seems to remain the same no matter what
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Learned Helplessness and Depression
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- cannot change what is being done to them
- therapy attempts to prevent/undo thoughts --> Environmental enrichment: reduce bad events --> Personal Control Training: change expectations --> Resignation Training: reduce attractiveness of unattainable outcomes --> Attribution Retraining: change to external, temporary or specific reasons |
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Beck and Depression
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- cognition is primary characteristic of disorder not emotion
Definition of Depression: - excessively negative view of self, world, and future |
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Beck: Errors in Logic
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1) Arbitrary Inference: no evidence, based on isolated incident
2) Selective Abstraction: decontextualize and exaggerate meaning of detail 3) Magnification 4) Minimixation: trivialize good experience 5) Personalization: taking blame |
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Beck: Anxiety
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- emergency response that relies on cognition (recognize danger, judge ability to cope, choose response)
- treat nonemergency and emergency - catastrophizing, self-doubt, perceived skill defecits |
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Beck: Cognitive Restructuring
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- identify depression producing thoughts
- challenge thoughts based on perception of facts - replace with more productive view - scrutinize own process of thoughts - bring automatic thoughts to awareness |
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Negative Emotions: where do they come from?
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from irrational beliefs
--> goal is to irradicate these beliefs |
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Kelly's Fixed Role Therapy
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participant acts like a new character for two weeks, becomes the new reality
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Deductive VS Inductive Strategies
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- Deductive: appeals to logic
- Inductive: changes in world |
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Limits of the Cognitive Approach to Behavioral Modification
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- all all preceding beliefs necessarily irrational?
- lack grounding in real world - proposes to change thoughts AND world context... recognizes the interdependnce of the person -Behavioral Therapy uses Classical Conditioning -->aversion therapy (alcos just throw pills out) -->flooding |
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Axes of DSM
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Axis 1: sever psychopathologies
Axis 2: personality disorders Axis 3: medical conditions related to mental health Axis 4: psychosocial & environmental stressors Axis 5: Global functioning (0-100... 100 is fully functioning) |
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Personality Disorders VS Psychological Disorders
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Personality Disorders:
- manifestations of traits - aspects of personality become so extreme to cause problems for them and others Psychological Disorders: mental disorder: (psychiatry) a psychological disorder of thought or emotion; a more neutral term than mental illness |
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Dependent Personality
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extreme pattern of relying on others to take care of one's needs and make decisions
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Avoidant personality
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fear of failure, criticism, or rejection leads to avoidance of normal activities
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OCPD
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extreme pattern of rigidly conscientious behavior, anxious and inflexible adherence to rules and rituals
stubborn resistance to change (not the same as OCD) |
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Schizotypal
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Extreme pattern of odd beliefs or behaviors, difficulty relating to others
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Schizoid
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extreme pattern of seeming indifferent to others and cold, bland style of behavior, no pleasure from social interaction
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Borderline Personality
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- extreme and sometimes dangerous pattern of emotional instability, emotional emptiness, confused identity, and tendencies towards self harm
MOST SEVERE! |
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Paranoid
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assume worst of everyone, alert for signs of betrayal
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Histrionic
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extreme pattern of attention-getting and shallow but dramitcally expressed emotions
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Antisocial
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extreme pattern of deceitful, manipulative and sometimes dangerous behavior
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Narcissistic
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extreme pattern of arrogant, exploitative behavior combined with notable lack of empathy
excessive self-love, more extreme than narcissism |
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Entity VS Incremental Theories
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Entity:
FIXED>Individuals belief that abilities are fixed and unchangeable Incremental MALLEABLE = Individuals believe that abilities can increase with experience and practice |
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Self Determination Theory
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3 Fundamental Needs
1)Autonomy: finding your own way of life and making your own decisions 2) Competence - find something you are good at, become better 3) Relatedness - establish meaningful ties with other people INTRINSIC all of these needs are within us whether we know it or not, cannot be fully functioning person unless you attain these 3 |
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Chronic Accessibility
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- tendency for idea or concept to come easily to mind for an individual
- different interpretations to same stimulus |
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Implicit VS Explicit
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-Implicit: might be important, people dont realize they have them
-Explicit - people can talk about and willingly describe |
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Rational VS Experiential
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- Rational Knowledge
analytic, logical, thinking in terms of abstract symbols, words, and numbers; operates at slower speed; produces knowledge Experiential Knowledge -holistic, driven by what feels good, past experience.. think in terms of images, metaphors, stories ; immediate action ; effortless and automatic |
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Repression VS Sensitization
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Repression-sensitization Scale
- measure the extent to which people are relatively defensive or sensitive in their perception of potentially threatening information |
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Achievement Motivation
|
tendency to direct ones thoughts and behavior towards striving for excellence
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Affiliation motivation
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tendency to direct thoughts and behavior towards finding and maintaining close relationships
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Power Motivation
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Tendency to direct thoughts and behavior towards feeling strong and influencing others
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Big Three, or Five, or Two (Reasons for motivation)
|
1) enjoyment
2) self-assertion 3) Esteem 4) interpersonal success 5) avoidance of negative affect |
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Goal Circumplex
|
Arranged in Two Dimensions
1) Self transcendence vs physical self... spirituality and helping others VS hedonism (self-pleasure) 2) Extrinsic vs Intrinsic... popularity/financial success VS self-acceptance and affiliation |
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Judgment Goals VS Developmental Goals
|
Judgment: refers to seeking to judge or validate an attribute in oneself
Developmental: Desire to actually improve oneself |
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Circumplex Model of Emotion
|
arranges in terms of positive, negative, aroused, or unaroused
positive, aroused = excited negative, aroused = alarmed negative, unaroused = bored positive, unaroused = serene |
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Emotions prevalent in all Cultures
|
-happiness
- sadness - anger - fear - surprise - disgust |
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Hedonic VS Eudaimonic
|
Hedonic: pleasure seeking
Eudaimonic: seeking a meaningful life |
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Predictors of Happiness
|
- genetics
- life circumstances - intentional activities |
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Consequences of Happiness
|
- positive effects on health
- occupational success - supportive relationships |
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Lay Dispositionism
|
tendency to use traits as the basic unit of analysis in social perception
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Rejection Sensitivity
|
- deep anxiety and humiliation even at the slightest rebuff
- perceive and magnify intentional rejection in ambiguous behavior - attribute of rejection sensitivity can produce the very outcome the person fears - triggered when rejection may be imminent - same person may be completely normal when the correct stimuli is not present |
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Rejection Sensitivity: Perceptual Defense
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- ability to screen out information that might make individual anxious or uncomfortable
- prevents embarassing stimuli from entering consciousness even while other aspects of the mind are responding to them ---> Rape: sweat glands respond, but they said they couldnt read the word |
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Delayed Gratification
|
Preschool: Marshmallow now or later?
- attentional control strategy: distracting fun thoughts, cool hot features by reframing - instead of automatic reastion, high delay facilitates reflective, controlled, adaptive responses - DG --> higher education, less drug use, better interpersonal functioning --> higher self-worth |
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Self-Verification
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- people work hard to make others treat them in a way that confirms their self-conception
- when ppl have positive self views, the desire for self-verification works with the desire for positive evaluations from others (self-enhancement) - when ppl have negative self-views, self-enhancement competes |
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Ideal Self
|
what you could be at your very best
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Ought Self
|
what you should be
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Ideal Self and Ought Self: Similarity
|
BOTH ARE UNREALISTIC!
-fail to attain ideal self, you become depressed - fail to attain ought self, you become anxious |
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Ideal Self and Ought Self: why do reactions differ?
|
represent different foci to life
Ideal self: reward based.. focus of life is the pursuit of pleasure and rewards - root of depression is dissapoinment Ought Self: goal based on the focus of avoiding punishments and other bad outcomes - root of anxiety is fear |
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Shared Reality
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- fundamental need... experience transitory without social validation, perceived commonality of inner states
- serves epistemic and relational needs |
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consequences of Shared reality
|
- trust is socially trasmitted information
- facilitates formation/maintenance of relationships - reality shared in meaningful relationships shapes self-concept, motivation and cognitive structure |
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Social Tuning
|
tune attitudes towards others
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Self-stereotyping
|
change in math competence after priming gender/ethnicity
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Transference
|
applying old patterns of behavior and emotion to relationships with someone new
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