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168 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Theory
An organized system of assumptions and principles that is intended to explain a specified set of phenomena and their interrelationships.
Hypothesis
A statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena; scientific hypotheses specify relationships among events or variables and are empirically tested.
Operational definition
A precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being defined.
Principal of falsifiability
The principles that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirm; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happen.
Confirmation bias
The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one’s own belief.
Replicate
Scientists must tell others where they got their ideas, how they tested them, and what the results were. So that the other scientists can verify-or challenge- the findings.
Peer review
When scientists submit their work to professional journal which send the findings to experts in the field for evaluation and suggested revisions before publishing them. This process ensures that the work lives up to the scientific standard.
Descriptive methods
Methods that yield descriptions of behavior but not necessarily causal explanations.
Case study
A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated.
Observational study
A study in which the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with the behavior; it may involve either naturalistic or laboratory observation.
Naturalistic observation
to find out how people or animals act in their normal social environments.
Laboratory observation
observations that are made in a laboratory setting. This gives the experimenter more control and the use of sophisticated equipments.
Psychological tests
Procedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, aptitudes, and values.
Standardization
In test construction, to develop uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test.
Norms
In test construction, established standards of performance.
Reliability
In test construction, the consistency of scores derived from a test, from one time and place to another.
Test-retest reliability
by giving the test twice to the same group of people, and then comparing the two sets of scores statistically. If the test is reliable, individuals’ scores will be similar from one session to another.
Alternate-forms reliability:
by giving different versions of the test to the same group on two different occasions. The items are similar in format but the content is different.
Validity
The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.
Content validity
If the items of the test broadly represent the trait in question.
Criterion validity
the ability to predict other, independent measures, or criteria, of the trait in question.
Surveys
Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.
Representative sample
a group of subjects, selected from a population for study, which matches the population on important characteristics such as age and sex.
Volunteer bias
a shortcoming of findings derived from a sample of volunteers instead of a representative sample; the volunteers may differ from those who did not volunteer.
Correlational study
a descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena.
Correlation
A measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another.
Variable
Characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured or described by a numeric scale.
Positive correlation
An association between increases in one variable and increases in another; or between decreases in one and in another.
Negative correlation
An association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.
Coefficient of correlation
A measure of correlation that ranges in value from -1.00 to +1.00.
Experiment
A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effects on another.
Independent variable
A variable the experimenter manipulates.
Dependent variable
A variable that an experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable.
Control condition
In an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in the experimental condition.
Random assignment
A procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which each individual has the same probability as any other of the being assigned to a given group.
Placebo
An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control in an experiment or given by a medical practitioner to a patient.
Single-blind study
An experiment in which subjects do not know whether they are in an experimental or control group.
Experimenter effects
Unintended changes in subjects’ behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter.
Double-blind study
An experiment in which neither the subjects not the individuals running the study known which subjects are in the control group and which are in the experimental group until after the results are tallied.
Field research
Descriptive or experimental research conducted in a natural setting outside the laboratory.
Descriptive statistics
Statistical procedures that organize and summarize research data.
Arithmetic mean:
An average that is calculated by adding up a set of quantities and dividing the sum by the total number of quantities in the set.
Standard deviation:
A commonly used measure of variability that indicates the average difference between scores in a distribution and their mean; more precisely, the square root of the average squared deviation from the mean.
Inferential statistics:
Statistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study’s results are.
Significance tests:
Statistical tests that show how likely it is that a study’s results occurred merely by chance.
Statistical significance:
A term used to refer to a result that is extremely unlikely to have occurred by chance.
Cross-sectional study
A study in which subjects of different ages are compared at a given time.
Longitudinal study
A study in which subjects are followed and periodically reassessed over a period of time.
Meta-analysis:
A procedure for combining and analyzing data from many studies; it determines how much of the variance in scores across all studies can be explained by a particular variable.
Effect size
The amount of variance among scores in a study accounted for by the independent variable.
Informed consent:
When people participate voluntarily and know enough about the study to make an intelligent decision about participating.
Social psychology
study of relations between groups and people
Cultural psychology:
field of psychology which assumes that culture and mind are inseparable
Norms (social):
rules that regulate human life, including social conventions, explicit laws, and implicit cultural standards
Role
a given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior
Culture
a program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community
Conversational distance
how close people normally stand to one another when they are speaking
Routinization
when people define their actions in terms of routine duties and roles and their behavior starts to feel normal, just like a job to be done
Entrapment
process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action in order to justify their investment in it
Social cognition
an area in social
psychology concerned with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and other cognitive processes
Attribution theory
the theory that people are motivated to explain their own and others’ behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to a situation or disposition
Situational attributions:
14. : 15. :
identifying the cause of an action as something in the situation or environment
Dispositional attributions
identifying the cause of action as something in the person, such as a trait or motive
Fundamental attribution error
the tendency to overestimate personality factors and underestimate the influence of the situation
Self serving bias
the tendency to take credit for one’s good actions and rationalize one’s mistakes
Just-world hypothesis
the notion that many people need to believe that the world is fair and that justice is served; that bad people are punished and good people rewarded
Blaming the victim
a dispositional (personality) attribution
Attitude
a belief about people, groups, ideas, or activities
Generational identity
reflects the characteristic attitudes and values that result from being a certain age at a certain moment in history
Cognitive dissonance
a state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds two cognitions that a psychologically inconsistent, or when a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behavior
Validity effect
the tendency of people to believe that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated so many times
Coercive persuasion
using harsh tactic to force people to change their minds (brainwashing)
Individualist vs collectivist cultures
cultures in which individual goals and whishes are prized above duty and relations with others, verses cultures in which harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes
Groupthink
in close knit groups, the tendency for all members to think alike for the sake of harmony and to suppress disagreement
Diffusion of responsibility
in organized or anonymous groups, the tendency of members to avoid taking responsibility for actions or decisions, assuming that others will do so
Bystander apathy
diffusion of responsibility; when others are near, people fail to call for help or come to the aid of a person in trouble
Pituitary gland
a small endocrine gland at the base of the brain, which releases many hormones and regulates other endocrine glands
Limbic system
a group of brain areas involved in emotional reactions and motivated behavior
Amyglada
a brain structure involved in the arousal and regulation of emotion and the initial emotional response to sensory information
Hippocampus
a brain structure involved in the storage of new information in memory
Cerebrum
the largest part of the brain structure, consisting of the upper part of the brain; divided into two hemispheres, it is in charge of most sensory, motor, and cognitive processes
Cerebral hemispheres
the two halves of the cerebrum
Corpus callosum
the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
Lateralization
specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres for particular operations
Cerebral cortex
a collection of several thin layers of cells covering the cerebrum; responsible for higher mental functions
Occipital lobe
lower back part of the brain; contain visual cortex
Visual cortex
where visual signals are processed
Parietal lobes
top of the brain; contain somatosensory cortex
Convergence
when you cross your eyes to look at something that is RIGHT in front of you for ex. Try to look at a watch that is one cent. From your nose, you will notice that your eyes will CONVERGE because they are relying to focus
retinal disparity
When you view something at an angle from your left eye and from your right eye the image is a little different
monocular cues
things that allow you to tell how deep something is or how far away something is *turn to pg.200 for more picture examples
perceptual constancy
is when an object stays the same despite the fact that you see it differently for ex. If a Frisbee is on the table you see it as oval and when you see it right in from of you is round though the shapes are different you still identify them as a Frisbee.
loudness
the intensity of a sound wave
pitch
FREQUENCY of a pressure wave
timbre
the complexity of the sound wave
Organ of corti
a thing in the cochlea that has hair cells that help with accepting different sound waves.
Cochlea
looks like a big swirly thing; snail, where the hearing receptors are located.
papillae
knob like elevations on the tongue that’s where the taste buds are (for a picture turn to page 209)
taste buds
things that help you taste stuff; taste receptor cells
kinesthesis
the feeling of the position and movement of your body; knowing where your at;
equilibrium
sense of balance
semicircular canals
when you move your head this helps you keep your balance
gate control theory
the theory that if pain were to occur, the "pain" neurons must first past through a metaphorical “gate” on the spinal cord after which it would travel to the brain
parapsychology
the study of purported psychic phenomena such as ESP and mental telepathy.
perceptual set
when your brain fills in stuff for you, for example when you are reading a sentence you imagine that all the words are spelt correctly and that when someone is talking you fill in the gaps of what they are saying cause you never hear the whole thing. For example in the previous sent. I misspelled a word but you filled it in because of perceptual set
extrasensory perception
ESP when you have an extra sense; btw no one has ever SCIENTIFICALLY proven to have ESP
Phantom pain
this is when say for example you got your leg cut off but your leg still hurts AHHHH!!!!! This kinda deals with the gate control theory.
olfaction
sense of smell
gestation
taste
auditory nerve
The nerve that connects the inner ear with the brain
basilar membrane
membrane that extends from the margin of the bony shelf of the cochlea to the outer wall and that supports the organ of Corti
audition
sense of hearing
perceptual illusion
when we something that isn’t there
Consciousness
Awareness of oneself and the environment.
Biological Rhythm
A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological system; may or may not have psychological implications.
Entrainment
The synchronization of biological rhythms with external cues, such as fluctuations in daylight.
Endogenous
Generated from within rather then by external cues.
Circadian Rhythm:
A biological rhythm with a period of about 24 hours,
Infradian Rhythm:
A biological rhythm that occurs less frequently than once a day.
Ultradian Rhythm
A biological rhythm that occurs more frequently than once a day.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN):
An area of the brain containing a biological clock that governs circadian rhythm.
Melatonin
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland; it is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms.
Internal Desynchronization
A state in which biological rhythms are not in phase (synchronized) with one another.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD):
A controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during the winter and an improvement of mood in the spring.
“Premenstrual Syndrome” (PMS)
“PMS” is when women are said to go through both physical and emotional changes during their menstrual cycles such as cramps, breast tenderness, and water retention and irritability and depression. But it is noted that fewer than 5 percent of all women have such symptoms predictably over their cycles.
Sleep Apnea
A disorder in which breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing the person to choke and gasp, and momentarily awaken.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder involving sudden and unpredictable daytime attacks of sleepiness or lapses into REM sleep.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
Sleep periods characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone, and dreaming.
Non-REM Sleep
Rapid eye movement in an ultradian cycle that recurs every 90 minutes or so.
Alpha Waves
When you first climb into bed, close your eyes, and relax, your brain emits bursts of alpha waves. On an EEG recording, alpha waves have a regular, slow rhythm and a high amplitude (height). Gradually, these waves slow down even further, and you drift into the Land of Nod, passing four stages, each deeper than the previous one. (please refer to the book to see the four stages)
Sleep Spindles
Sleep spindles (sometimes referred to as sigma bands or sigma waves) may represent periods where the brain is inhibiting processing to keep the sleeper in a tranquil state. It is is a burst of brain activity visible on an EEG that occurs during stage 2 sleep. It consists of 12-16 Hz waves that occur for 0.5 to 1.5 seconds.
Lucid Dream
A dream in which the dreamer is aware of dreaming.
Central Nervous System
The portion of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
A collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back, protected by a column of bones (the spinal column).
Spinal Reflexes
Automatic reflexes originating from the spinal cord, not the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System
All portions of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord; it includes sensory and motor nerves.
Sensory Nerves
Carry messages from special receptors in the skin, muscles, and other internal and external sense organs to the spinal cord, which sends them along to the brain.
Motor Nerves
Carry orders from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and internal organs.
Somatic Nervous System
The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects to sensory receptors and to skeletal muscles; sometimes called the skeletal nervous system.
Autonomic Nervous System
The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the internal organs and glands.The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the internal organs and glands.
Sympathetic Nervous System
The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes bodily resources and increases the output of energy during emotion and stress.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that operates during relaxed states and that conserves energy.
Neurons
A cell that conducts electrochemical signals; the basic unit of the nervous system; also called a nerve cell.
Glia
Cells that support, nurture, and insulate neurons, remove debris when neurons die, enhance the formation and maintenance of synapses, and modify neuronal functioning.
Synapses
Connections between neurons
Dendrites
A neuron's branches that receive information from other neurons and transmit it toward the cell body.
Cell Body
The part of the neuron that keeps it alive and determines whether it will fire.
Axon
A neuron's extending fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body and transmits them to other neurons.
Stem Cells
Immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential to develop into mature cells; given encouraging environments, stem cells from early embryos can develop into any cell type; also called precursor cells.
Synaptic Cleft
A minuscule space separating the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
Synapse
The site where transmission of a nerve impulse from one nerve cell to another occurs; it includes the axon terminal, the synaptic cleft, and receptor sites in the membrane of the receiving cell.
Spines
Tiny projections on dendrites that produce more complex connections among the brain's nerve cells.
Action Potential
A brief change in electrical voltage that occurs between the inside and the outside of an axon when a neuron is stimulated; it seems to produce an electrical impulse.
Synaptic Vesicles
Tiny sacs in the tip of the axon terminal that open and release neurotransmitters when a neural impulse reaches the axon terminal's button-like tip.
Neurotransmitter
A chemical substance that is released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alerts the activity of a receiving neuron.
Receptor Sites
Special molecules in the membrane of the receiving neuron's dendrites (or sometimes cell body) that neurotransmitters bind to.
Endorphins
Chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates; they are involved in pain reduction, pleasure, and memory, and are known technically as endogenous opioid peptides.
Hormones
Chemical substances, secreted by organs called glands, that affect the functioning of other organs.
Melatonin
A hormone, secreted by the pineal gland, that is involved in the regulation of daily biological rhythms.
Endocrine Glands
Internal organs that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream.
Adrenal Hormones
Hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands and that are involved in emotion and stress.
Cortisol
Increases blood-sugar levels and boosts energy.
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Hormones produced by the outer part of the Adrenal glands.
Sex Hormones
Hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs and that stimulate the development of male and female sexual characteristics.
Androgens
Androgens are masculinizing hormones produced mainly in the testes but also in the ovaries and the adrenal glands.
Estrogens
Estrogens are feminizing hormones that bring on physical changes in females at puberty, such as breast development and the onset of menstruation.
Progesterone
Progesterone contributes to the growth and maintenance of the uterine lining in preparation for a fertilized egg.
Electrodes
Small, coin-shaped devices that detect the electrical activity of millions of neurons in particular regions of the brain and are widely used in research and medical diagnosis.