Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
228 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Recognition of Speech
|
Left Hemisphere plays a large role in analyzing the detailed information.
Auditory system recognizes the patterns underlying speech. |
|
|
Phonemes
|
The smallest unit of speech, that allows us to distinguish the meaning of a spoken word. Example the "c" sound in "cat"
|
|
|
Voice Onset Time
|
The delay between the initial sound and the onset of vibrations of vocal cords.
|
|
|
Morphemes
|
Combination of phonemes.
Smallest units of meaning in language. Free morpheme = means something on its own Bound morpheme = doesn't mean something on its own |
|
|
Syntax
|
The arrangement of words so that it creates well structured sentences.
Word class - verb, noun, adverb, and adjective Function words - a words who's purpose is to signify grammatical relationship more than to convey meaning Context words - nouns, verbs, adj, adverb. Affixes (prefix/suffix) - sounds added at the beginning of word Semantics - word meanings Prosiody - the use of stress rhythm and changes in pitch that accompany speech. |
|
|
Deep and Surface Structure
|
Deep Structure - newly formed sentences in the brain in terms of their meaning
Surface Structure - the particular form that the sentence takes |
|
|
Script
|
The characteristics, events and rules that are typical of a particular situation, assits the comprehension of verbal communication.
|
|
|
Brain Mechanism of Verbal Behaviour
|
Mechanisms involved in perceiving, comprehending, and producing speech are found in different areas of the cerebral cortex.
|
|
|
Speech Production
|
Frontal Lobe.
|
|
|
Broca's Aphasia
|
Damage to the region of the motor association cortex in the left frontal lobe disrupts the ability to speak. Difficulty articulating words.
|
|
|
Aggramatism
|
Loss of ability to produce or comprehend speech that involves complex syntactical rules.
|
|
|
Speech Comprehension
|
Complex, relies on memories of sequences of sounds, which occurs in the upper left temporal lobe, wernicke's area.
|
|
|
Wernicke's Aphasia
|
Poor speech production and production of meaningless speech. Creates difficulty recognizing words and disturbs ability to turn thoughts to words.
|
|
|
Semantic Priming
|
How your the meaning of a word changes because of its relationship to earlier words.
|
|
|
How Children learn to speak
|
1. Children make grammatical which are confirmed or denied by what they hear
2. The innate language acquisition device guides the formation of these hypothesis 3. The device provides the motivation for the child to learn a language 4. The critical period for learning a language is childhood |
|
|
Perception of Sounds by Infants
|
Some learning takes place prenatally.
Word comprehension and babbling work together to establish the foundation of more complex speech. |
|
|
Stages of Speech in Infants
|
1. Show preference for mothers voice and stories they heard. Can hear phenome from every language
2. 6 months respond differently to phonemes in their native language, become less sensitive to differences of phonemes in their native language 3. Shortly after start babbling 4. 12-18 begin to use words form proto words 5. 18-20 put two words together 6. after 2 year learn 3-5 words per day and using grammar and adult syntax |
|
|
Acquisition of Meaning
|
Children learn to understand words by associating a word with an object.
Overextension - the use of a word to denote a larger class than is appropriate. Underextension - the use of a word to denotes a smaller class of items than is appropriate. |
|
|
Intelligence
|
A person's ability to learn and remember information, to recognize concepts and their relations, and to apply the information to the own behaviour in an adaptive way.
|
|
|
Approaches to the study of intelligence
|
Differential Approach - favours the development of tests that identify and measure individual differences in people's ability to solve problems, particularly those that use skills important to the classroom.
Developmental Approach - studies the ways in which children learn to perceive, manipulation and think about the world. Information Processing Approach - focuses on the types of skills people use to think and to solve various types of problems. |
|
|
Three Theories of Intelligence
|
Two Factor Theory
Information processing theory Neuropsychological theory |
|
|
Two Factor Theory
|
Charles Spearman proposed that a persons performance on a test of intelligence is determines by 2 factors.
General factor - the relationship between the different parts of an intelligence test Fluid Intelligence - culture free tasks, no prior knowledge needed. Crystallized intelligence - defined by tasks that require people to have acquired information for their culture, like schooling. |
|
|
Information Processing Theory
|
Sternberg proposed that the degree of success people achieve in life is strongly affected by how people manage their strengths and weaknesses.
Three Components to Intelligence Analytical - consists of the mental mechanisms that people use to plan and execute tasks. Creative - ability to deal effectively with novel situations and to solve familiar problems automatically Practical - intelligence that is linked to natural selection in our evolutionary history |
|
|
Neuropsychological Theory of Intelligence
|
Intelligence is determined by the culture that you are in as they value different things as intelligent
|
|
|
The Binet-Simon Scale
|
Alfred Binet compared data to what is normally expected at that age.
Measured psychological abilities such as, imagery, attention, comprehension, and imagination. |
|
|
The Standford-Binet Scale
|
Lewis Terman.
Tasks grouped according to mental age, found IQ by mental age divided by chronological age times 100. |
|
|
Wechsler's Tests
|
Avoids cultural and linguistic biases.
|
|
|
Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests
|
Reliability is assessed by the correlation between the scores people receive on the same measurement on two different occasions.
Validity is assessed by the strength of the correlation between test scores and criteria. |
|
|
Downfalls of IQ tests
|
Bias, depending on the culture different things will measure intelligence.
Self fulfilling prophecies. |
|
|
Heritability
|
The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically down generations
|
|
|
Environmental Factors that Influence Intelligence
|
Pre-natal health, child's health, education of child's parents, quality of schooling.
|
|
|
Donald Hebb
|
Intelligence has 2 components
1. Hereditary biological potential for intellectual development. 2. The effect of biological development coupled with environmental influences on functioning |
|
|
Goals of Thinking
|
Classification and concept formation, logical reasoning and problem solving.
|
|
|
Genetics
|
Structure and Function of genes
|
|
|
Influences of gender on heredity
|
Some genes are sex linked
|
|
|
Chromosomal Aberration
|
Change in parts of a chromosome or total number of chromosomes
|
|
|
Genetic Disorders
|
"Lethal Genes" impair an organisms ability to survive.
Some are more prevalent like down syndrome, Huntington's disease, and PKU |
|
|
Concordance
|
Matching phenotypes
|
|
|
Germinal Period
|
8-10 days after conception, until developing cells attach the the uterine wall.
When gametes merge they become zygotes. Zygotes divide many times which results in a spherical mass called a morula |
|
|
Epigenetic Modification
|
The turning on and off of genes which makes our cells different and makes us ourselves different
|
|
|
Stem Cells
|
Have not undergone epigenetic modification and can become any cell in the body.
|
|
|
Blastocyst
|
The cells form 2 layers, the inner cell mass and the trophoblast.
Inner cells becomes the embryo Trophoblast provides nutrients |
|
|
Changes occurring during beginning of Embryonic period
|
After it is attached to the wall, last 8 weeks.
Trophoblast becomes 2 layers, amniotic sac - creates a constant environment for the embryo, and placenta - acts as a filter and protective barrier for the embryo, transfers nutrients to the embryo, and removes waste. Embryo separates into three parts. 1. Endoderm - innermost layer of tissue, eventually develops into digestive system, urinary tract and lungs. 2. Mesoderm - middle layer, transforms into muscle, bone, and circulatory system. 3. Ectoderm - outer layer, develops into skin, hair, teeth, and central nervous system. |
|
|
The Neural Tube
|
Occurs shortly after the three layer split.
It folds in on itself allowing the developing CNS to go into the embryo. Begins to develop the brain and spinal cord through a process called neurulation. Cells of the CNS will grow inside the tube - neurogenesis |
|
|
Neural Migration
|
For neural growth to occur cells must organize themselves spontaneously and appropriately.
|
|
|
Factors that influence neural migration
|
Genetic instructions.
Timing and location of neurogenesis Interaction with glial cells Combination of genetic, chemical and environmental factors. |
|
|
Embryonic Period
|
Grows a heart, begins to pump blood, developes most of its organs, begins to grow arms and legs, sexual differentiations occur, and begins to respond to sensory information.
2 patterns of embryonic development 1. Cephalocaudal -development occurs most intensely at the head and proceed downwards 2. Proximodistal - begins in the center and goes out. |
|
|
Apopostis
|
A process of cell death that is genetically programmed and is required for development. The hand looks like a fin and then the webbings die off.
|
|
|
The Foetal Period
|
9 weeks - birth
End of 4th month - sleep and wake cycle begins 5th month - vestibular system, foetus becomes receptive to sound. 6th month - 700g and can survive premature birth 7-9 months grows 250g/week |
|
|
Stress During Pregnancy
|
High levels of stress usually leads to a premature delivery, reduced growth, low birth weight, higher rates of respiratory illness, lower cognitive ability, and can cause aggressive behaviour and depression
|
|
|
Malnutrition During Pregnancy
|
Underweight babies with small heads, physical malformations and developmental effects.
|
|
|
Teratogens
|
Can cause extreme harm to foetus, alcohol, nicotine, prescription drugs and diseases.
|
|
|
Reflexes
|
Babies are born with reflexes and are an indicator of neural development. They are replaced with voluntary movements later on.
|
|
|
Reaching and Grasping Reflex
|
From birth - 3 months.
Close their hand against anything pressed into it. |
|
|
Motor Milestones in North America
|
Sit up - 5-7.5 months.
Pull up and stand with support - 9 months Walk unsupported - 12-13 months Walk upstairs, carry toys, and walk backwards - 16 months Run - 2 years |
|
|
Growing the Brain
|
When we are born we already have most of the neurons that we will ever have.
Our brain grows through increasing synaptogenesis - the forming of synapse in our brain. By 12 months we will have more synapses than we ever will have again. Synaptic Pruning - the selective elimination of neural synapses, this is how brain efficiency is increased |
|
|
Brain Plasticity
|
Experience-dependent plasticity - neurons shape themselves into new or stronger connection in response to use.
Experience-expectant plasticity - development of the brain can be guided by the types of experiences that will almost certainly take place in the environment in which we are developing |
|
|
Myelination
|
The development of the myelin sheath around neurons. Increases speed with which the neural activity travels.
Finishes in early adulthood. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is one of the last places to get myelinated which controls impulses, plans complex actions, forsees consequences and is responsible for working memory. |
|
|
Puberty
|
Begins when the hypothalamus starts secreting hormones that stimulate the gonads to mature and for sex hormones to be secreted.
Menarche - first menstration ovulation begins 12-18 months after. Semenarche - the time of a guys first ejactulation |
|
|
Aging and Middle Age
|
Muscle strength peaks around late 20's early 30's.
Decline in sensory experience in late 40s early 50s Peak fertility for women - 20-25 Menopause occurs in early 50s With age fluid intelligence decreases As we age we become more susceptible to cognitive disorders. |
|
|
What is development
|
Cognitive growth, emotional maturation, a physical phenomenon
|
|
|
John B. Watson
|
Little Albert Experiment.
Everything is learned behaviour |
|
|
B.F. Skinner
|
Attention is a powerful reinforcer for young children, even negative attention.
If behaviour is intermediately reinforced it will stay the longest. |
|
|
Jean Piagett
|
Theorized that people develop in four stages.
Emphasized the interaction of environmental and maturational factors. Children of similar age have similar cognitive skills. Children must go through the previous stage before continuing. |
|
|
Jean Piagett's cyclic process
|
Assimilation - incorporation of new data into a schema without having to revise the scope of that schema.
Accommodation - the information incorporated cannot be explained by our schema so we adjust the parameters of it Equilibration - we create an entirely new schema |
|
|
Jean Piagett's Stages
|
Sensorimotor Stage
Pre-operational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage |
|
|
Sensorimotor Stage
|
Birth - 2 years
Build an understanding of their environment primarily through their sensory and motor abilities Reflexes fade and are replaced by voluntary movements Begins to gain the concept of object permanence |
|
|
Preoperational Stage
|
2 - 6/7 years
Children cannot preform operations and reversible mental processes. Marked by substantial cognitive development in symbolic representation and logical reasoning Egocentric - think only of themselves Cant grasp conservation - quantity stays the same even is shape changes. |
|
|
Concrete Operation Stage
|
7 - 11/12
Master conversational problems Can manage problems with more than one variable Increase ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others Understand more complex cause and effect relationships Have problems using logic |
|
|
Formal Operational Stage
|
12 - adulthood
Person gains ability to think abstractly Formulate and test hypothesis in a logical and scientific way. Not everyone reaches this stage. |
|
|
Problems with Piaget's Theory
|
Doesn't account for variability in development.
Infants have better cognitive capacities than he thought Didn't emphasize social environment Vague on mechanisms of change |
|
|
Lev Vygotsky
|
Socio-cultural theory
Places emphasis on the social environment Language as one of the driving forces of development |
|
|
Intersubjectivity
|
2 people being able to talk effectively about a topic because of the knowledge they posses.
Joint Attention - the ability to share attention with another on the same topic Social Referencing - the tendency to look to another for clarification on a subject |
|
|
Social Scaffolding
|
When someone with more knowledge helps a child develop, helps them reach a higher level of support than they would have alone.
Zone of proximal development - the difference between what a child can achieve alone and what a child can achieve with the help of others |
|
|
Erikson and The Life Cycle
|
Theory of development in the 60s
Lifespan development - stages that are passed by the resolution of a crisis faced by the developing child 1. Trust vs Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs Shame and Self Doubt 3. Initiative vs Guilt 4. Industry vs Inferiority 5. Identity vs Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs Isolation 7. Generativity vs Stagnation 8. Integrity vs Despair |
|
|
Trust vs Mistrust
|
Birth - 12 months
Infants rely on others for well being If needs are met infant learns to trust caregiver if not then no trust is formed |
|
|
Autonomy vs Shame and Self Doubt
|
1 - 3 years
Increase in ability to interact with and understand the world Will either develop autonomy through exploration or self doubt if exploration is punished |
|
|
Initiative vs Guilt
|
3 - 6 years
Children begin to set goals for themselves Positive resolution of goals - confidence Negative outcome of goals - guilt |
|
|
Industry vs Inferiority
|
6 - adolescence
Transition to a structured lifestyle Will adapt and succeed or not adapt and feel inferior |
|
|
Identity vs Role Confusion
|
Adolescence - early adulthood
Form beliefs and create sense of self or fail to do so and remain confused about their lifes. |
|
|
Intimacy vs Isolation
|
Early Adulthood
Learn to share themselves with others and form relationships or become isolated |
|
|
Generativity vs Stagnation
|
Middle Adulthood
Have meaningful relationships and do valuable work or be isolated, bored and meaningless |
|
|
Integrity vs Despair
|
Late Adulthood - death
Experience a sense of completion and wholeness or experience despair and a lack of meaning in their lives |
|
|
James Marcia
|
Teen Identity crisis has 4 resolutions
1. Achievement - identity achievement, considered alternative 2. Moratorium - exploring options, crisis unresolved 3. Foreclosure - identity achieved without exploration alternative 4. Identity Diffusion - no identity commitment, no exploration |
|
|
Theory
|
An idea or conceptual model designed to explain existing facts and make prediction about new facts
|
|
|
Ecological System Model
|
Urie Brofenbrenner
Viewed the developing person as existing within a number of overlapping systems that we influence 1. Microsystem - you and your immediate relationships 2. Mesosystem - connection between relationships in the microsystem 3. Exosystem - settings we don't directly experience but they still influence us 4. Macrosystem - larger social constructs shape environment 5. Chronosystem - historical changes that influence development and the systems around us |
|
|
Bandura
|
Social Cognitive Theory
Observational learning plays a crucial role in determining how one behaves Learned behaviours and thoughts play a dominant role in personalities. Reciprocal determinism - a person's behaviour shapes the environment and the environment shapes a person's behaviour Perceived self efficacy - individual's perception of their ability to master a situation and produce favourable outcomes |
|
|
Core Knowledge Theory
|
Susan Carey, Elizabeth Spelke, and Noam Chomsky
Infants and young children have much more sophisticated cognitive tools than old theories say Born with mechanisms that predispose humans to learn specific skills quickly or to understand certain phenoma in specific ways. |
|
|
Theory Theory
|
Children learn through making hypothesis and testing it
|
|
|
The Rouge Test
|
As early as 4 months old infants will act differently to images of themselves and images of others
Chimps can do it but slowly |
|
|
Children and Self
|
2 years children begin to verbally refer to themselves and describe personal characteristics
8 and older children use knowledge about themselves to evaluate and modify behaviour, make social comparisons between themselves and others, and become more concerned about how others see them. |
|
|
Adolescence
|
Concerned with how they appear to others
Imaginary audience - feel as if everyone is looking at them more so than they are Work towards becoming less concerned with appearances and more concerned with meeting their own expectations |
|
|
Influences on the Self-Concept
|
Collectivist cultures - causes self to revolve around their relationship to the community
Individualist cultures - cause self to revolve around how they are different from others |
|
|
Infant Habituation
|
Simplest form of learning, a given stimulus is repeatedly presented and child learns that that stimulus is pointless and doesn't respond
|
|
|
Consistent Lies
|
At younger ages children do not lie to keep their story making sense.
|
|
|
Learning Theory of Mind
|
Independent of executive function and can be developed by practice
Older siblings help because they have the opportunity to reason about other's mental states Also better if parents ask children to consider the feelings of others |
|
|
Theory of Mind and Autism
|
Belief that theory of mind develops from the same cluster of genetic and epigenetic processes as autism, autistic children generally display a weak theory of mind.
|
|
|
Animals and ToM
|
Some Chimps
Corvids possibly |
|
|
Altruism
|
Helping others with no regard for yourself
Prosocial behaviour - positive, construction, and helpful behaviour that is beneficial to others, usually at a cost to one's self |
|
|
Aggression
|
Antisocial behaviour - opposite of prosocial behaviour
Aggression peaks at 2.5 years Genetics and environment both factor into aggresion |
|
|
Lawrence Kohlberg
|
Developed a theory about the nature and development of moral values.
Preconventional Morality 1. Heteronymous Morality 2. Instrumental Morality Conventional Morality 3. Good Child 4. Law and Order Postconventional Morality 5. Social Contract 6. Universal Ethical Problems 7. Cosmic Orientation His research didn't account for cultural differences |
|
|
Preconventional Morality
|
1. Heteronymous Morality
- preschool - base reasoning on self intrest and avoidance of punishment 2. Instrumental Morality - 7 to 8 years - become more interested in fairness of exchanges in evaluations of moral actions |
|
|
Conventional Morality
|
1. Good Child
- 10 to 11 years - begin to see views of others as important and display concern about being seen as good 2. Law and Order - late adolescence - concerned with the good of society - laws are key because they protect us from immoral behaviour |
|
|
Postconventional Morality
|
1. Social Contract
- aware that people hold a variety of opinions/values - recognize obligation to the law 2. Universal Ethical Problems - abide by a personally chosen set of ethical principles believed to reflect universal tenets of justice 3. Cosmic Orientation - grapple with questions of why moral behaviour is important and have mystical spiritual experiences |
|
|
Genetics and Behaviour
|
Linked to levels of prosocial or antisocial behaviour
|
|
|
Observational Learning
|
Learning from observing others
|
|
|
The Social Brain
|
Attempts to explain the evolution of intelligence
Social living is what has led to the large brains of dolphins, chimps and humans The reason for evolutionary brain growth is to provide social creatures with an advantage over other creatures |
|
|
Inductive Learning
|
Martin Hoffman
Suggested that inductive discipline is responsible for empathetic moral development Inductive discipline - guiding behaviour, putting rules in place and explaining why Increases pro social behaviour The way that parents interact with children has important developmental consequences |
|
|
Types of Caregivers
|
1. Authoritative (high demand, high response)
- unlikely to use physical discipline - will explain reasons behind their rules - reason with children - give them freedom within their boundaries 2. Authoritarian (high demand, low response) - discipline using threats - don't explain 3. Permissive Parents (low demand, high response) - think children are best on their own - no imposed structure - allow lots of freedom 4. Neglectful Parents (low demand, low response) - do not set limits - do not monitor activity - care about themselves more than their children |
|
|
Teaching and Learning
|
1. Teacher models
2. Learner observes 3. Learner improves For teaching to occur the student must gain the skill quicker than if not taught |
|
|
Konrad Lorenz
|
Studied fixed action patterns - behaviours or learning elicited by specific stimuli without prior experience
Imprinting - a rapid form of learning that occurs in a short time window after birth, such as the bond between a baby duck and its mother |
|
|
John Bowlby
|
Found that humans don't imprint but they still have an important attachment to their caregivers. Formed a theory about the development of attachment
|
|
|
4 Stages of Attachment
|
1. Pre-attachment
- from birth to 6 weeks - remain close with caregiver and reliant on them for food comfort and protection 2. Attachment in the making - 6 weeks to 6/8 months - begin to treat people differently - show more attachment to parents 3. Clear cut attachment - 6/8 months to 18 months - children activity seek comfort from caregivers - may start to show separation anxiety 4. Reciprocal Relationship phase - as children grow - get more comfortable being away from caretakers - and relationship with caregivers become more reciprocal |
|
|
Strange Situation
|
4 types of reactions
1. Secure Attachment - react positively to stranger when caregiver is there - unhappy when caregiver leaves - fine when caregiver returns 2. Insecure- Resistant Attachment - uncomfortable in the strange situation - stay close to caregiver whole time - not comforted by caregivers return 3. Disorganized Attachment - does not react normally - may want caregivers attention but scared of reaction 4. Insecure - Avoidant Attachment - do not have positive relationship with caregiver - dont pay attention to caregiver - easily comforted by stranger |
|
|
Temperament
|
Important factor of the attachment bond
Different traits 1. activity level 2. rhythmicity 3. approach/withdrawal 4. threshold of responsiveness 5. intensity of reaction 6. attention span 7. distractibility 8. adaptability 9. quality of mood How the parents respond to the different types of temperament affects the attachment |
|
|
3 Basic Temperament Types
|
1. The easy baby
- playful - regular biological rhythms - calm and adaptable 2. The difficult baby - irregular biological rhythms - slow to adjust to new circumstances - can react very negatively to new stimuli 3. The slow to warm up baby - low activity - seem difficult - eventually get better |
|
|
Gender Roles
|
Gender identity - one's sense of being consists primarily of the acceptance of membership in a particular group of people, their gender
Gender roles - culturally specific expectations as to the types of activities engaged by different genders Gender stereotypes - beliefs abut differences in personality traits, skills, and behaviours of males and females |
|
|
Parents and Social Roles
|
Are the first to place gender roles on children by buying different toys, colours and activities they enrole you in.
|
|
|
Sexual Dimorphism
|
Cognitive - there are biological cognitive differences between males and females. Women tend to be stronger on verbal test. Males tend to be stronger on visuospatial tasks.
Behaviour - men and women produce different hormones that effect their behaviour |
|
|
Emotional Dimorphism
|
Cognitive and behavioural differences differ more by individual than by gender
|
|
|
Emotional Rescue
|
Emotions play a large role in social development
Effected by emotional cues from others |
|
|
Discrete Emotions Theory
|
Only a few distinct emotions are biologically based and since we all biologically have the same set of emotions we tend to react similarly.
Based on 7 main emotions |
|
|
Functional Emotions Theory
|
Purpose of emotions are to motivate interaction with the environment in order to accomplish goals, not innate influenced by social factors.
|
|
|
Emotional Control
|
Emotional self regulation - a process that involved the initiation, suppression or regulation of the 4 components of emotion: feelings, physiological states, goals and thoughts.
Effortful control - ability to suppress ones automatic response and substitute a planned or intentional response. Develops better between 3 - 6 years old |
|
|
Homophily
|
The tendency to choose to associate with those who are similar to use
Exists both physically and socially |
|
|
Peer Power
|
Judith Harris suggests that peer relationships may be the most important socializing factor in our development
|
|
|
Evolutionary Psychology
|
Concerned with the evolutionary underpinnings of behaviour and understanding the adaptive significance and utility of behaviours exhibited by modern humans
|
|
|
Pedigreed Disorders
|
Single gene diseases that are passed down from generation to generation
|
|
|
Polygenetic Disorders
|
More than one gene is responsible for the disorder
|
|
|
Fixed Genes
|
Genes that increase an offsprings survival will become more common in the population
Genes that do not affect survival will continue to vary. |
|
|
Evolutionary Fitness
|
The probability that the line fo descent from an individual with a specific trait will not die out
Changes in evolutionary fitness require more genetic variance |
|
|
Gene Dosage
|
Responsible for the resemblance between parents and children
|
|
|
Twins
|
Identical Twins - monozygotic
Fraternal Twins - dizygotic Differences between monozygotic twins that are raised apart reflect the way that environment influences development |
|
|
Influences on traits
|
Largely influenced by genetics
Non shared environments effect traits like intelligence and personality. Shared environments do not have a large effect |
|
|
Behaviour's two interrelated causes
|
1. Structure and chemistry of an organism
2. The environment The way that these two interact is largely genetically determined because of the evolutionary processes their ancestors underwent |
|
|
Developmental Psyc
|
Concerned mainly with the environmental component
Post pre and post natal environmental |
|
|
Evolutionary Psyc
|
Concerned with the behavioural characteristics that are the product of natural selection
|
|
|
Behavioural genetics
|
Concerned with separating individual differences into genetic and environmental variance components
|
|
|
Misunderstanding of Evolution
|
Naturalistic Fallacy
- the thought that everything natural must be good Genetic Determinist Fallacy - the belief that evolution is determined solely by genes not the interaction of genes and the environment |
|
|
Facultative Behaviours
|
Determined by the immediate environment
|
|
|
Obligate Behaviours
|
Develop independently of environmental variations
|
|
|
An Adaptation
|
1. Designed to accomplish some biological purpose
2. It operates in a similar manner over cultures and time 3. It is plausibly related to reproductive and survival success in ancestral environments 4. It is not more simply explained as something else Sexual preference is an adaption |
|
|
Parental Investment Theory
|
Parental Investment - The energy, time, resources and opportunity costs associated with producing offspring.
Mating Opportunity cost - the effort and costs incurred in securing and preserving a mate The higher they are the lower the potential fitness |
|
|
Selection Pressure
|
The sex that has a higher potential reproductive rate is under greater selectional pressure to compete, mainly males leads to adaptations like antlers
|
|
|
Polygyny
|
When one male mates with many females, this is due to the fact that females must put more time and effort into having offspring then males do
Leads to some males banging all the ladies and some all by themselves |
|
|
Sex Hormones
|
What makes us different, they are a type of steroid that binds to highly specific receptors.
Act as organizers of foetal neural tissue and as context sensitive activators of biologically significant behaviours |
|
|
Epigamy
|
A form of sexual selection based no alteration of appearance in some way that provides an advantage, like the birds in biology
|
|
|
Intrasexual selection
|
Competition between the same sex.
Produces characteristics that provide reproductive and sometimes survival advantages. |
|
|
Conditional Strategies
|
Individuals that are genetically the same but adopt different behavioural tactics based on the conditions they encounter.
Grasshoppers either display food or stalk their mates based on amount of food they foraged. |
|
|
Mathematics of Inheritance
|
First Degree Relative - 50 percent shared genetic info
Second Degree Relative - 25 percent shared genetic info Third Degree Relative - 12.5 percent shared genetic info |
|
|
Inclusive Fitness
|
Reproductive success of those who share common genes
Explains why people sacrifices themselves for their kin |
|
|
Animal Nepotism
|
Nepotisitic - tendency to favour relatives over non-relatives regardless of circumstances
|
|
|
Reciprocal altruism
|
People are nice to others because they believe that they will pay them back
The gain from cooperation is greater than the sum of the gain of each party without cooperation |
|
|
Mom vs. Foetus
|
Mothers share only 50 percent of their DNA with the foetus, the placenta stops the mother from attacking the foetus
|
|
|
Paul Ekman
|
Basic Emotions
1. Surprise 2. Happiness 3. Anger 4. Fear 5. Disgust 6. Sadness Universal emotions and the facial expressions that accompany them |
|
|
Reproductive Success
|
Male reproductive success was limited by the number of available fertile partners.
Female reproductive success was limited by the resources available to raise their offspring This led to males and females having different sexual values and looking for different things in partners |
|
|
Drives
|
A reversible internal condition that affects the nature, strength, and persistence of an individual's behaviour
Regulatory Drives - drives such as hunger, thirst, thermoregulation and sleep - related to specific areas of the hypothalamus Non regulatory Drives - safety (fear, avoid danger) - reproductive - social (motivate us to cooperate) - educative (play and exploration) |
|
|
Motivation
|
General term for the phenomena that affect the nature, strength and persistance of an individual's behaviour.
Internal and External |
|
|
Drive Reduction Theory
|
Organisms have needs, those needs lead to drives, and motivational behaviour is a form of drive reduction
|
|
|
Central State Theory
|
Certain hubs or nuclei in the brain involve detection of imbalances, decision making and motor output. You may not be aware that you are low in salt but your body makes you want some chips
Can explain why we are motivated to do things |
|
|
Intrinsic Incentives
|
Result from an internal need, it is satisfying in and of itself
|
|
|
Extrinsic Incentives
|
Result from gaining a reward or avoiding unpleasant consequences
|
|
|
Over-justification effect
|
If someone switches from intrinsic to extrinsic goals they will only continue the activity for as long as they continually get rewarded
|
|
|
Satiety
|
Pressure sensors keep ou from eating until you burst
|
|
|
Arcuate Nucleus
|
Appetite control centre in the hypothalamus near the pituitary gland contains two different types of neurons that stimulates feeding behaviour and the other suppresses it
|
|
|
Sex Drive
|
Sexual motivation is not solely based on reproduction
|
|
|
Emotion
|
A relatively brief display of a feeling made in response to environmental events having motivational significance or in response to memories of such events.
Makes sense of/finds meaning in limited information, like perception, memory, and other distributed brain functions |
|
|
Distribution of Emotions
|
Mostly in the frontal cortex
|
|
|
James - Lange
|
Suggests that emotions occur after the reaction response of the autonomic nervous response.
Each emotion has its own specific pattern of autonomic nervous response arousal that the brain reads and interprets as an emotional state |
|
|
Schachler's Two Factor Theory
|
The emotion associated with our arousal according to the situation we are currently in
Fear and sexual desire have similar physiological responses but differ because of the situation that you are in when you experience them |
|
|
Amygdala and Emotion
|
Amygdala plays an important role in negative emotions such as anger and fear
A cluster of nuclei under the cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe |
|
|
Prefrontal Cortex
|
Plays an important role in our conscious experience of emotions and more thoughtful deliberative responses to those emotions
|
|
|
Personality
|
A particular pattern of behaviour and thinking that prevails across time and situations and differentiates one person from another
4 Perspectives on Personality 1. Trait 2. Psychodynamic 3. Humanistic 4. Social-cognitive |
|
|
Objective Tests
|
Minnesta Multiphasic Inventory
- people answer a series of true/false questions about themselves NEO Personal Inventory - provides a series of questions that you either agree or disagree with on a 5 point scale |
|
|
Diagnostic Tests
|
Rorschach Test
- a series of inkblots and the person describes what they see - it is projective because the person projects their personality onto the inkblots |
|
|
Less Valid Tests
|
Myers - Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- identifies personality types and cognitive styles Thematic Apperception Test - where people project their personalities by making up stories |
|
|
The Traditional Approach
|
The trait perspective is the classic approach to studying personality
Classifies and describes psychological characters by which people differ consistently between situations and over time Want to find a small set of meaningful traits that can effectively describe the personality of any individuals Raymond Cattell developed a list of 16 basic traits, but they were too complex and contains too many traits |
|
|
The Big Five
|
O - openness
C - conscientiousness E - extraversion A - agreeableness N - neuroticism The questionnaire used called the NEO personality inventory, based on the original 3 traits They reliably and significantly predict behaviours |
|
|
Freud
|
Primary psychodynamic theorist
Believed the mind largely consists of unconscious forces and desires Believed that bizarre human behaviour is hidden in the unconscious and is a result of how a person negotiates conflicting deep rooted desires such as sex and aggression Psychoanalytic theory - theory of personality based on conflict between the conscious and unconscious mind and on developmental stages tied to various bodily functions Id - unconscious reservoir of unconscious energy, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operates on a pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification Ego - largely conscious, mediates the demands of the id and superego, and reality, operates on a reality principle, seeks to bring pleasure rather than pain Superego - partly conscious, strives to live up to internalized ideals and desires to follow the rules and restrictions placed on us society, punishes the ego by placing guilt and shame on it and punishing it |
|
|
Freud's views on development
|
Occurs through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure seeking energies of the id become focused on distinct erogenous zones of the body.
If the psychosexual stages are completed successfully it results in a healthy personality. If conflicts are not resolved at a certain stage it leads to fixation --> staying at that stage |
|
|
Frued's 7 main defence mechanisms
|
1. Repression
2. Displacement 3. Sublimation 4. Reaction Formation 5. Projection 6. Rationalization 7. Regression |
|
|
Humanistic Approach
|
Intended to outline how healthy people develop through life
Focus on aspects of human nature that separate us from other animals Phenomenological reality - how each individual views his or her own world |
|
|
Carl Rogers
|
Self concept - a persons understanding of who he or she is
Plays a large part in shaping phenomenological reality If others aren't happy with us we can't be happy with ourselves |
|
|
Abraham Maslow
|
Believed that a persons behaviour stems from a motivation to reach their full potential
Must satisfy lower level needs before higher level needs 5 levels 1. Physiological 2. Safety 3. Belonging 4. Esteem 5. Self actualization |
|
|
Reciprocal Determinism
|
The cyclical notion that social experience effects the development of personality and then personality affects how we interact with our environment
We are constantly learning |
|
|
Locus of Control
|
Peoples beliefs about whether outcomes of their their actions are out of their control or not
Julian Rotter Internal locus of control - can control his/her actions and results External locus of control - belief that circumstance are beyond control of the individual |
|
|
Conditioned Humans
|
Learned helplessness - when an animal or human learns helplessness and passive resignation when unable to avoid repeated adversative
Uncontrollable events makes you think that you have no control and feel helplessness |
|
|
Self Efficacy
|
Albert Bandura
An individuals belief about his/her ability to perform a specific task High confidence - high self efficacy Low confidence - low self efficacy Self efficacy is a good indicator of task performance |
|
|
Self Concept and Self Schema
|
An individuals perception of self including knowledge, feelings, and ideas about oneself, it is used as a basis for how we describe ourselves
Self schema - beliefs people hold about themselves that guide how they process self relevant information |
|
|
Schematicity
|
How some attributes are more important to a person's self concept than others
If self schema is important to a person they are schematic in respect to that attribute Influences how we behave in situations and how we remember past events, also how we perceive and judge other people |
|
|
Self Awareness
|
The ability to recognize oneself as a distinct identity
|
|
|
Introspection
|
Looking inwards to one's thoughts and feelings
|
|
|
Affective forecasting
|
Predicting how one would feel about a future emotional event
|
|
|
Self perception theory
|
In contrast to introspection, people learn about themselves by observing their own behaviour and then determining their attitudes and feelings
|
|
|
The looking glass self
|
The notion that other people serve as mirrors in which we see ourselves
|
|
|
Individualistic cultures
|
People describe themselves in terms of their inner psychological traits
|
|
|
Collectivist cultures
|
People describe themselves in terms of their relational roles and group memberships
|
|
|
Social comparison theory
|
Leon Festinger
The theory that people evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others |
|
|
Explaining Self Esteem
|
An emotionally related component of the self whereas self concept is a cognitive evaluation
|
|
|
Sociometer Theory
|
Leary and Baumeister
Self esteem has evolved as a way to measure interpersonal relationships Self esteem reflects how we think others view us Strong correlation between self esteem and experiencing acceptance/rejection from others Widely accepted |
|
|
Terror Management Theory
|
All human behaviour is motivated by the fear of our own mortality
Less widely accepted by than sociometer Jeff Greenberg People are motivated to pursue positive self evaluations because higher self esteem provides a buffer against potential fear and anxiety of the inevitability of death |
|
|
Self handicapping
|
Engaging in behaviour designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide an excuse for the subsequent failure
|
|
|
Basking in reflected glory
|
Associating with others who are successful to increase your own self esteem
|
|
|
Downward Social Comparisons
|
Defensive tendencies to compare oneself to other who are worse than them
|
|
|
Self Serving Cognition
|
General beliefs about the self that serve to enhance their self esteem
1. Better than average effect - most people rate themselves as better than the average person, which is impossible 2. Unrealistic Optimism - most people are unrealistically optimistic about their future outlook 3. Self serving attributions - the tendency to take personal credit for successes and provide external excuses for failures |
|
|
Self Discrepancy Theory
|
Our self esteem and emotional states are determined by the match or mismatch between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves
Actual self - people beliefs regarding their actual attributes Ideal self - peoples beliefs regarding what they and others would like them to be The ought self - peoples beliefs regarding what they think they should be |
|
|
Fritz Heider
|
Attributes are explanations for the causes of one's own and other's behaviour
|
|
|
Harold Kelley
|
Covariation theory
- describes the principles that underlie how we make attributions about behaviour - Covariance principle - an attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why they and other people behave in a certain way 3 things allow us to see if it internal or external cause 1. Consistency 2. Consensus 3. Distinctiveness When consistency, consensus and distinctiveness are high it is external causes When consistency is high but consensus and distinctiveness are low it is internal causes |
|
|
Visual Orientation Hypothesis
|
We attribute behaviour to personality differently for others than we do for ourselves.
We attribute our behaviour to our traits and their behaviour to the situation |
|
|
Impression Formation
|
The process by which we combine information about a person to reach an overall evaluation of them and their beliefs and attributes. This is influenced by several biases
Person positivity bias - tendency to evaluate individuals more favourably than groups Trait negativity bias - tendency to be more influenced by negative information more than positive information Primacy effect - tendency for information that is presented earlier to be more influential than information presented later |
|
|
Stereotypes
|
Organized sets of knowledge or beliefs about any group of people that can contain either positive or negative information
Cognitive |
|
|
Prejudice
|
A negative feeling toward people based on their membership in certain groups
Emotional |
|
|
Discrimination
|
Negative behaviour directed at people because of their group membership
Behavioural |
|
|
Out group homogeneity effect
|
Tendency to perceive out group members as all alike, while perceiving in group members as distinct and diverse which leads to stereotypes
|
|
|
Origins of Prejudice
|
Very easy to develop
Realistic conflict theory - groups tend to have more friction with each other when they compete for resources and will be more cooperative with each other if they have unified goals |
|
|
Consequences of stereotyping
|
The Pygmalion Effect - stereotype based expectancy that causes a person to act in a manner consistent with the stereotype
Stereotype threat - a fear among members of a group that they may confirm or be judged in terms of a negative stereotype when they are in situations relevant to that stereotype |
|
|
Functional Attitudes
|
Attitude - a positive, negative or mixed evaluation of an attitude object
5 main functions 1. Utilitarian - having attitudes helps us function efficiently because of what we know about things 2. Social-Adjustive - attitude can foster social cohesion with others 3. Value-Expressive - attitudes show who we are and what we stand for 4. Ego-Defensive - hel us feel good about ourselves and enhance self esteem 5. Knowledge - simplify our understanding of the world and allow us to use neuristics |
|
|
Explicit Attitudes
|
Conscious evaluations of people objects or ideas
|
|
|
Implicit Attitudes
|
Unconscious evaluations of people, objects or ideas
|
|
|
Main Methods to measure attributes
|
1. Explicit/direct methods - ask people to directly report their attitudes
2. Implicit/indirect methods - assess attitudes without people knowing they are being measure |
|
|
Implicit Association Test
|
A flexible task designed to tap automatic associations between concepts and attitudes
Measures the speed with which participants classify stimulus items to category labels by pressing a response on a keyboard An indirect measure of attitudes |
|
|
Specificity Matching
|
Specific attitudes predict specific behaviours but do not predict general behaviours
|
|
|
Attitude Strength
|
1. Accessibility - the easier or faster an attitude can be retrieved from memory, the more likely it is to affect behaviour
2. Knowledge - the more information a person has concerning their attitude the more likely it will be to have a larger impact on behaviour 3. Certainty - the more confidence a person has in the correctness of an attitude the more it will affect behaviour 4. Importance - the greater personal significance of an attitude, the more likely it will be to affect behaviour 5. Ambivalence - the greater amount of conflict associated with an attitude, the less likely it will affect behaviour |
|
|
Persuasion
|
The use of active techniques to change or influence a person's attitude
|
|
|
Message Learning Theory
|
Carl Houland
A theory that proposes that an individual must attend to, comprehend, yield to and retain a message in order to be persuaded |
|
|
Elaboration Likelihood Model
|
Petty and Cacippo
There are 2 routes through which persuasive messages are processed; the central route and the peripheral route Central route - motivated to think carefully influenced by quality of argument Peripheral route - influenced by superficial cues relating to the communication of the message |
|
|
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
|
Holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tensions that people become motivated to reduce
|
|
|
4 Different Types of Dyslexia
|
1. Surface - occurs when people confuse visual shapes of letters
2. Phonological - can understand word but cant sound it out 3. Direct - occurs when individuals can read words but can understand meaning 4. Developmental - infusion of all three and results in developmental problems |
