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145 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is Personality?
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*shaped by complex forces and factors
*how others see us: external persona ~also what they don't see *enduring and stable characteristics *unique pattern of traits |
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Been looked at in different ways: CONSCIOUSNESS
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*experimentation, breaking things down into elemental parts
*focus on mental processes *personality cannot be studied |
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Been looked at in different ways: BEHAVIORISM
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*we can only study behaviors that can be directly observed, measured
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Been looked at in different ways: PSYCHOANALYSIS
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*focused on both the conscious and unconscious
*non-experimental; non-systematic *personality is the whole person (unconscious + conscious) |
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Been looked at in different ways: SCIENTIFIC
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*study personality through a variety of scientific methods
*interactionist perspective |
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what does personality psychology look like now?
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*often viewed as having 3 main schools of thought: trait, social cognitive, and psychodynamic
*new lines of work: biopsychology, neuroscience |
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Assessment: various purposes
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*clinical diagnosis
*education *workplace *research |
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principles of measurement
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*standardization
*reliability: consistency *validity: measure what we say we measure |
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Barnum effect
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is when the diagnosis is so broad and has little things that apply to you, that you over see the things that don't and agree to what is about you
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6 assessment methods
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*self-report inventories
*online test administration *projective tests *clinical interviews *behavioral assessment *thought and experience samples |
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assessment methods: self-report inverntories
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*"objective measures"
examples: MMPI, CPI *advantages: objective scoring, low cost *disadvantages: reading level, social desirability |
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assessment methods: projective tests
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*"subjective" - ambiguous stimulus
examples: inkblot, TAT, word association, sentence completion *advantages: unique scientific value *disadvantages: low reliability/validity |
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assessment methods: clinical interviews
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*asking questions: past and present life experiences, relationships with others, reasons for seeking help
*advantages: focus assessment at beginning *disadvantages: subjective |
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assessment methods: behavioral assessments
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*observer evaluation of behavior: often during clinical interview
*advantages: valuable insights *disadvantages: less systematic |
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assessment methods: thought and experience sampling
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*record thoughts and moods: at certain intervals over time, describe social and environmental context
*advantages: determine how person is impacted by context *disadvantages: forgetting, failure to respond |
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issues in the study of personality
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*most personality theorists have been: white, male, european or american
*most participants in personality research have been: white, male, european or american |
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ethnic and gender issues in the study of personality
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*women: high levels of depression and anxiety, low assertiveness
*men: low help seeking *asians: high collectivism, low assertiveness, low optimism, low help seeking *african-americans: high levels of depression, low trust *hispanics: high collectivism, low help seeking |
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4 personality research methods
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*clinical method
*experimental method *virtual research method *correlational method |
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personality research methods: clinical method
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*detailed history of individual: various sources are used ( tests, interviews, dream analysis)
*advantages: depth of information *disadvantages: subjective, less precision |
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personality research methods: experimental method
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*determine effects of variables or events on behavior
*independent variable: what we are manipulating *dependent variable: what we are measuring *advantages: well controlled, systematic, can be duplicated *disadvantages: limited aspects possible in lab, awareness of observation |
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personality research methods: correlational method
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*degree of existing relationship: correlation coefficient between 2 variables (+ same direction; - opposite direction)
*advantages: prediction in real world *disadvantages: correlation does not imply causation |
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Theory
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*framework to simplify and describe data in a meaningful way
*should stimulate research and be testable *aid in understanding and prediction |
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formal theories
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*based on large amounts of data
*tested repeatedly *believed to be more generalized *goal of objectivity: though often have subjective components |
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personal theories
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*based on ourselves and close others
*often initially based on intuition *more subjective *own personal thoughts/feelings are more involved |
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questions about human nature
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*free will or determinism
*nature or nurture *past or present *unique or universal *satisfaction or growth *optimism or pessimism |
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Psychoanalytic theorist
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Sigmund Freud
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Freud's background and relation to his theory
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*strict dad but mother who adored him
*struggled with sexuality and impotence *theory on personal experience, memories, and case studies *noticed childhood "seduction" in patients' stories; later said they were fantasies *no girl contact, virgin at 30 *negative attitude toward "animal need" for sex |
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Freud: instincts
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*propelling forces of personality
*forms of energy |
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Freud: life instinct (Eros)
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*oriented toward growth, development, and survival
*sex *libido: drive for pleasurable behavior and thoughts *cathexis: investment of psychic energy in an object or person |
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Freud: death instinct (thanatos)
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*drive for death, decay, destruction, aggression
*aggressive drive |
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Freud: levels of personality
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bottom: unconscious
*home of the instincts *major driving power behind all behaviors middle: preconscious *storehouse of memories and thoughts *can call into consciousness top: conscious *experiences in awareness *limited aspect of personality |
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Freud: structure of personality
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ID: *pleasure principle
*primary process thinking *infantile *instincts *what are we born with *irrational *biological EGO: *reality principle *secondary process thinking *rational *logical *planning, learning, remembering SUPEREGO: *internalized values/social standards *moral *conscience: guilt, "shouldn't" *ego-ideal: "should" |
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Freud: conflict
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*Freud's most basic concept
*personality is centered around intra-psychic conflict |
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Freud: reality anxiety
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*tangible dangers
*external threat from environment |
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Freud: neurotic anxiety
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*fear of giving into instincts
*internal threat from id *id vs. ego |
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Freud: moral anxiety
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*guilt
*internal threat from superego *id. vs. superego |
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Freud: defense mechanisms
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*ego strategies to defend against anxiety
*provoked by everyday conflicts *denials or distortions of reality *done unconsciously *generally have to do with lust and/or aggression |
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Freud: defense mechanisms: DENIAL
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*denying the existence of an external threat
*refusal to accept reality *external |
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Freud: defense mechanisms: REPRESSION
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*unconscious removal from awareness
*"internal denial" *Freudian slip |
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Freud: defense mechanisms: REACTION FORMATION
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*converting unwanted or dangerous thoughts into their opposite
*expression of the opposite id impulse *trying to convince self and others |
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Freud: defense mechanisms: PROJECTION
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*attribute of an undesired/disturbing impulse to someone else
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Freud: defense mechanisms: REGRESSION
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*retreat to an earlier period of life
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Freud: defense mechanisms: DISPLACEMENT
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*shifting id impulses to a suitable object
*redirection of thoughts/feelings to a different target |
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Freud: defense mechanisms: RATIONALIZATION
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*reinterpreting behavior
*offering different explanations *making excuses to justify actions, feelings, etc. |
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Freud: defense mechanisms: SUBLIMATION
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*altering unacceptable id impulses into socially acceptable behaviors
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Freud: post-freudian defense mechanisms
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*acting out
*dissociation *compartmentalization *intellectualization *undoing *compensation |
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Freud: psychosexual stages
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*personality develops in stages
*each stage is defined by: -focus on an erogenous zone -conflict that must be resolved in order to move to the next stage *in conflict is unresolved --> fixation -unresolved due to excessive frustration OR gratification -portion of libido remains invested -repetition compulsion |
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Freud: psychosexual stage: ORAL
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*birth-1 year
*nurturance *primary erogenous zone: mouth *pleasure derived from sucking, biting swallowing *id is dominant |
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Freud: oral stage fixation types
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*oral incorporative:
- over-gratification or over-frustration - excessive concern with oral activities - dependent, clingy, gullible - "energy vampires" - take in *oral aggressive: - Over-gratification or over-frustration (late in stage, during teething) - Excessive pessimism & aggressiveness - Hostile - Verbal cruelty |
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Freud: psychosexual stage: ANAL
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*1-3 years
*primary erogenous zone: anus *toilet training interferes with gratification of defecating - clash of wills: child and authority figure |
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Freud: Anal stage fixation types
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Anal retentive
- Rigid, stubborn, stingy - Hoarders - Overly conscientious - Comes from child holding it in all the time (over-frustration) *anal aggressive Also called “anal expulsive” - Disorderly - Cruel/destructive - Tantrums - Comes from child going wherever & whenever the want (over-gratification) |
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Freud: psychosexual stage: PHALLIC
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*3-5 years
*primary erogenous zone: genitals *interest in own genitals and those of others *superego development MALES: *oedipal complex *castration anxiety FEMALES: *electra complex *penis envy |
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Freud: fixation at the phallic stage
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-Vain
-Narcissistic -Need to prove themselves -Competitive *Males: - Overly promiscuous *Females: - Seductive, exhibitionistic, controlling - Competitive, hostile - “Symbolic castration of men” |
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Freud: psychosexual stage: LATENCY PERIOD
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*5-puberty
*Not true stage- period of rest *Sex instinct sublimated into school, hobbies, sports *Focus is on same sex friendships |
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Freud: psychosexual stage: GENITAL
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*Adolescence- adulthood
*Primary erogenous zone: genitals *Finding satisfaction in love & work *Focus on committed adult relationships |
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Freud's outlook on humanity
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*Deterministic
*Pessimistic *Nature and nurture influences *Focused on the past *Uniqueness and universality of experience *Growth can occur through psychoanalysis |
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Freud's assessment techniques
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*Psychodynamic perspective
*Free association *Dream analysis *Slips of the tongue *Fantasies *Transference *Catharsis *Goal of gaining insight & awareness (both in intellectual and emotional sense) |
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Freud: free association
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*Fundamental aspect of psychoanalysis
*Catharsis: expressing emotion *Resistances: blocks to expression |
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Freud: Dream Analysis
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*“Dream analysis is the royal road to the unconscious.”
*Manifest content: actual dream events *Latent content: symbolic meaning |
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Freudian concepts without support
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*Catharsis
-Does not reduce negative emotions *Repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse -Mixed results *Dreams as repressed wishes *Male identification with father *Poorly developed female superegos *Psychosexual stages of development *Relationship between Oedipal conflict and sexual difficulties |
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Freudian concepts with some support
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*Unconscious
*Ego control, resiliency *Displacement, repression, denial, projection *Oral & anal character types *Freudian slip *Mind-body connection *Structure of Oedipal triangle *Castration anxiety *Females having children as “compensation” for lack of a penis *Dreams as a reflection of emotional concerns *Aggressive instinct |
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Criticisms of Freud
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*Psychoanalysis too long and costly
*Too much emphasis on biology, determinism, & sex *Ambiguous definitions |
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contributions of Freud
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*Pioneer of personality theory
*Contemporary psychology has absorbed many Freudian ideas *Large influence on popular culture |
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Carl Jung - Analytic perspective
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*religious family
*kind, but weak, powerless father *unstable mother *lonely child *turned inward to cope *went away from Freud to create analytic psychology *midlife crisis: self-analysis of unconscious |
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Jung: Psychic energy
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*Libido:
- diffuse and general life energy - fuels the work of the psyche *Psyche - Jung's term for personality - psychic energy could be differentially invested in various motivators (power, love) |
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Jung: principles of psychic energy
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*opposition principle
- conflict between opposing processes/tendencies in necessary to create psychic energy *equivalence principle - continuing redistribution of energy within a personality *entropy principles - tendency toward balance and equilibrium; ideal is equal energy in all structures of the personality |
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Jung: oppositional forces (5)
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*conscious vs. unconscious
*introversion vs. extraversion *sensing vs. intuiting *thinking vs. feeling *persona vs. shadow |
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Jung: systems of personality: EGO
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*conscious aspect of psych
- perceiving, thinking, feeling, remembering *selective about what is admitted into awareness |
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Jung: systems of personality: Attitudes of the psyche
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*Extraversion:
- oriented toward external world and others - open - sociable - assertive *Introversion - oriented toward one's own thoughts and feelings - withdrawn - shy |
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Jung: systems of personality: psychological functions
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*accepting functions:
- non-rational - sensing: sensory - intuiting: belief/hunch *evaluative functions - rational - thinking: true/false - feeling: like/dislike |
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Jung: systems of personality: psychological types
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*these attitudes (extraversion + introversion)
*and these functions (sensing, intuiting, thinking, feeling) combine to form *eight psychological types |
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Jung: systems of personality: personal unconscious
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*reservoir fro material that was once conscious
- repressed experience *made up of complexes |
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Jung: systems of personality: complexes
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*pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, etc. organized around a common theme
- power, achievement *can be conscious or unconscious *can be helpful or harmful |
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Jung: systems of personality: collective unconscious
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*accumulation of inherited experiences of human and pre-human species
*deepest level of the psyche; the basis *inherited predispositions *made up of archetypes |
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Jung: systems of the personality: archetypes
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*images of universal experiences in the collective unconscious
- fear of heights, snakes, parent figures, birth, death, supernatural being *inherited, not learned *however, specific content can be affected by experience |
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Jung: self archetype
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*symbolizes totality of the person
*strive for unity, wholeness, and intergration *equilibrium between ego and unconscious *always striving, never achieve |
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Jung: examples of archetypes
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*old wise person
*the innocent child *the father *the mother *the hero *the maiden |
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Jung: synchronicity
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*"peculiar coincidence"
*similar to psychic, ESP, or deja-vu *inner and outer energy are 2 different manifestations of the same thing |
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Jung: development of personality: childhood
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*initially just reflection of parents
*ego development begins with differentiation between self and other |
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Jung: development of personality: adolescence
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*"psychic birth"
*adapt to demands of reality *focus on the external *exciting and challenging time *conscious is dominant |
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Jung: development of personality: middle age
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*challenges have been met->emptiness
*"mid-life crisis" *shift in focus from external to internal *balancing out of conscious and unconscious |
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Jung: indiciduation
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*fulfillment of one's capacities to become an individual
*innate tendency; helped or hindered by environment *integration of conscious and unconscious *requires shift in archetypes: *"dethroning of the persona" *acknowledging shadow *expression of anima/animus |
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Jung's outlook on human nature
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*determinism (childhood influences/archetypes) and free will (shadow influences)
*nature and nurture influences *past and present focused *uniqueness (sort of) fades over time *optimistic but wary |
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Jung's assessment
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*combined scientific/objective and mystical approaches
*investigation of variety of cultures, eras, symbols, myths, religion and rituals *attention to fantasies and dreams *languages and astrology *empirical and physiological assessments |
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Jung: word association
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*projective technique
*respond to stimulus with word *measured response time and physiological reactions *meant to uncover complexes |
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Jung: symptom analysis
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*similar to catharsis
*verbal report of symptoms *interpretation of free association *supposed to make symptoms disappear |
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Jung: Dream analysis
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*interpreting unconscious content
*need to look at series of dreams *free association of memories and events related to content of the dream *prospective: preparation for future events *compensatory: balancing between apposites |
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Jung: mandalas
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spiritual symbols
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Jung: Myers-Briggs Type Indication (MBTI)
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*based on Jung's personality types and attitudes
*popular self-report inventory *used for employee hiring and promotions decisions |
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criticisms of Jung
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*used life history reconstruction - unsystematic and unrepresentative
*subjective, unreliable, and unexplained analysis of data *concepts difficult to understand *writings lack internal consistency *too much focus on the occult and supernatural |
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contributions of Jung
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*impacted many disciplines
*word association inspired Rorschach and lie detection *psych complexes, attitudes, and types *influenced on other personality theorists *recognition of cultural, social, and historical influences on people *midlife crisis |
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individual psychology: Alfred Adler
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*jealousy of older brother
*closer to father than mother *feelings of inferiority *compensation for weakness through persistence |
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Alder's theory
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*integrated view of personality
*conflict with society, not with self *choice in how we relate to society - peacefully, harmoniously - hostile, aggressively - avoidant *emphasis on consciousness *teleological: oriented toward the future - focus on purpose of behavior, not cause *social motives are primary |
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Adler: social interest
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*innate drive to be social
*innate potential to cooperate to achieve goals *innate drive must be nurtured *focus on community interests *"gemeinschaftsgefuhl" -> "community feeling" |
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Adler: inferiority feelings
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*source of human striving
*normal for all people; basic condition *begins in infancy |
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Adler: compensation
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*motivation to overcome inferiority
*function of environment *generally normal and healthy *source of human growth *can become pathological *healthy if it has high social interest *unhealthy if it has low interest |
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Adler: inferiority complex
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*inability to overcome normal inferiority
*low self-concept *helpless *inability to cope |
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Adler: childhood sources of inferiority complexes
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*organic inferiority
- physical (illness) *spoiling/pampering - overindulgence *neglect - lack of love and security |
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Adler: superiority complex
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*overcompensation for normal inferiority
*exaggerated opinion of own abilities and accomplishments *self-centered *denigrates others *could lead to true effort to be successful OR *feelings of superiority without effort |
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Adler: fictional finalisms
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*imagined or potential goal that guides behavior
*based on what we value: power, love, achievement - not always aware *we create the meaning in our life *free will *shape how we perceive the world and how we interact with it *increases tension, but that is a good thing |
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Adler: striving for superiority
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*urge toward perfection or completion
*not an attempt to be better than others *realization of potential *early Adler: inferiority=feminine; striving is masculine drive to overcome - power, aggression *later Adler: we all strive for self-perfection |
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Adler: style of life
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*unique structure/patter of striving
*all behaviors, attitudes, etc. determined by out style of life *influenced by social environment early in life |
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Adler: creative power of self
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*ability to create an appropriate style of life
*we are not passively shaped by nature or nurture |
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Adler: types of styles of life: dominant/ruling
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*attacking
*try to gain superiority through control and domination *little social awareness |
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Adler: types of styles of life: getting/learning
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*ultra dependent on others
*clingy, needy *"control through weakness" *most common type |
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Adler: types of styles of life: avoiding
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*ignores problems
*avoids life as much as possible to avoid failure |
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Adler: types of styles of life: socially useful
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*cooperative
*high on social interest |
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Adler: birth order
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*sequence of sibling births is a major social influence
*siblings have different social environments *helps shape style of life |
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Adler: first born
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*focus of attention, then dethroned
*battle to regain supremacy *play role of teacher, tutor, leader, disciplinarian *characteristics: nostalgic, past-oriented, power-oriented, intellectually developed, authoritarian, organized, insecure, hostile toward others |
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Adler: second born child
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*parents less anxious
*older siblings as pacesetter *competition may serve as motivator *characteristics: optimistic, competitive, ambitious OR give up on tasks, underachiever |
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Adler: youngest child
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*pet of the family
*fast development to surpass others *characteristics: high achievers, if pampered, then dependent |
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Adler: only child
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*remain the focus of attention
*more time spent with adults *characteristics: mature early, disappointed when not the center of attention |
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Adler's outlook on human nature
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more on the side of...
*free will *nurture influences *past, present, and FUTURE *uniqueness emphasized *growth throughout life *optimistic |
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Adler's therapy and assessment style/techniques
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*goal is to encourage social interests and figure out style of life and if it was most appropriate
*informal therapy sessions *observing mannerisms: style of walking, sitting, body language |
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Adler: assessment: early recollections
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*using themes of early memories to reveal primary interests
- doctors has early memories of illness *reveals the way you are thinking right now *present determines past *early recollection can change through therapy |
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Adler: assessment: dream analysis
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*feelings about current problem
*interpretation requires knowledge of person and style of life *dreams are unique to individual, but some common themes *flying: striving upward *falling: emotional view following demotion or loss *being chased: weakness in relation to others *being paralyzed: facing unsolved problems |
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Adler: assessment: social interest
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*against use of tests to assess personality
*relied on case studies and therapist intuition |
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Adler: research on Adlerian concepts
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*neglected children: depression, anxiety
*pampered children: narcissism, lack empathy for others, exploitation of others *high social interest: low depression, anxiety hostility, cooperative, empathetic, happy and agreeable, healthier *dreams: may help us to deal effectively with current problems |
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Adler: research on early recollections
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*Anxious neurotics
- Memories of fear *Depressed - Memories of abandonment *Psychosomatic complaints - Memories of illness *Alcoholics - Memories of threat, external control *Criminals - Disturbing or aggressive interactions w/ others *Adolescent delinquents - Breaking rules, inability to cope, difficulty in forming relationships, parents as untrustworthy |
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Adler: research on Adlerian concepts: birth order
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*First-borns
- Intelligent (higher IQ scores) & hard-working - Low depression - High self-esteem - Suggestible - Dependent on others *Second-borns - Influenced by older siblings - Higher GPAs *Only-borns - High intelligence - Industrious - High self-esteem |
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contributions of Adler
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*influenced many theorists
*equality of women *organic inferiority *inferiority complex and compensation *birth order *social psychology *group therapy |
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criticisms of Adler
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*observations cannot be repeated or duplicated
*inconsistent and unsystematic research and theory *disagreement with free will *lack of public recognition |
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Neurotic needs and trends: Karen Horney
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*strict, cold, religious father
*spirited, free-thinking mom *felt rejected by both parents *jealous of brother *underwent Freudian psychoanalysis *turned to self-analysis |
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Horney: Childhood need for safety
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*safety/security need
- need for security and freedom from fear *basic evil - influences that interfere with need for safety - e.g. lack of warmth, obvious preference for a sibling, unfair punishment *infant helplessness - can lead to repression of hostility - arises from parental behaviors - excessive dependence; excessive fear; false excessive warmth; guilt trips |
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Horney: basic anxiety
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*pervasive feeling of loneliness and helplessness
*foundation of neurosis |
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Horney: Self-protection mechanisms
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*securing affection and love
*being submissive *attaining power *withdrawing |
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Horney: neurotic needs
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*overused self-protective mechanisms
*ten irrational defenses against anxiety *can become permanently integrated into personality |
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Horney: neurotic trends
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*expression of needs
*3 categories of behavior and attitudes toward self and others 1. movement toward people (compliant personality) 2. movement against people (aggressive personality) 3. movement away from people (detached personality) |
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Horney: Healthy vs. neurotic characteristics of the needs and trends
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*Healthy:
- moves fluidly through the styles - fluid, flexible, adaptable, responsive *neurotic: - 1 of the 3 trends is dominant - rigid, inflexible, compulsive |
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Horney: idealized self-image
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*idealized picture if oneself
*unifies personality *if healthy - ideal self and real self - overlapping each other *neurotic - ideal self and real self - really far apart |
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Horney: healthy characteristics of ideal self
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*realistic appraisal of abilities
*flexible and dynamic *reflects growth and self- awareness |
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Horney: neurotic characteristics of ideal self
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*unattainable and inflexible ideal
*leads to denial to self |
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Horney: tyranny of the shoulds
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*behaving how one thinks they should
*attempts to meet the unobtainable goals of perfectionism |
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Horney: externalization
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*basic defense mechanism
*projecting inner conflicts on outside world *blame put on others |
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Horney: Feminine psychology
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*Began in 1922 in opposition to Freud
*Revision of psychoanalysis to encompass womanhood & women’s roles *Acknowledgement of the role of culture - “many different feminine psychologies” |
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Feminine psychology: Horney - oedipus complex
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*Not sexual
*Represents conflict between dependence & hostility |
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Feminine psychology: Horney - penis envy vs. privilege envy
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*Overcompensation
*Envious of privilege |
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Feminine psychology: Horney - womb envy
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*Envy men feel toward women due to their capacity for motherhood
*Believed that men had to repress this and compensate by achievement in the workplace *Also believed this repression drove oppression of women |
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Feminine psychology: Horney - Flight for woman hood
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*Denial of femininity
*Women’s unconscious wish to be men *Can lead to sexual inhibitions |
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Feminine psychology: Horney - motherhood or career
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*Social & cultural conflict
*Need for women to have their own identity *Horney was a strong advocate that women could have both |
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horney's view on human nature
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*Free will
*Nurture influence *Past & present focus *Uniqueness emphasized *Growth & flexibility *Optimistic |
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Horney's assessment techniques
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*Modified Freudian techniques
*Importance of relationship between analyst & patient *Free association - Focus on emotional reactions - Reaction towards analyst explains attitudes toward others *Dream analysis - Analyzed feelings in dreams |
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Horney's research methods
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*Case study method
*Consistency of neurotic trends *Feminine psychology *Neurotic competitiveness - Need to win at all costs *Competing to win vs. competing to excel |
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contributions of Horney
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*Large public following
*Common sense appeal *Relevant to American culture *Major contributor to feminine psychology *Significant impact on later theorists |
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criticisms of Horney
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*Denied role of biological influences
*Incomplete & inconsistent theory *Needs sociological & anthropological studies to inform focus on social forces *Theory only applicable to middle class |
