Psychology Exam 4

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psychotherapy

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the generic name given to formal psychological treatment

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psychological treatment

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history of psychotherapy has been unsuccessful and often horrifying. two major approaches: psychotherapy and Biological Therapies.

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biological therapies

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treatment based on medical approaches to illness and disease.

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psychopharmacology

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the study and use of medications that affect brain or body functions

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types of psychotherapy

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psychodynamic therapy, humanistic therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy and family therapy

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psychodynamic therapy

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Goal is to increase insight, or awareness of psychological processes that affect functioning.

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free association

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Client would say whatever came to mind and the therapist would look for signs of unconscious conflicts, especially where the client appeared resistant to discussing certain topics.

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dream analysis

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the therapist would interpret the hidden meaning of the client's dreams

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insight

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moment of self-understanding. A patients awareness of his or her own unconscious psychological processes and how these processes affect failing functioning. The goal of Psychoanalysis. The sudden solution of the problem.

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transference

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the transfer of emotional feelings about others into the therapist.

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interpretations

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technique in psychoanalysis for an analyst

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resistance

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the patient's use of defense strategies to avoid painful emotions in therapy.

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unconscious

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psychoanalysis was meant to allow freer access to unconscious thought processes. Therapists look for signs of unconscious conflicts.

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psychodynamic therapy today

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less intense, briefer and more flexible

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sigmund freud

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developed psychoanalysis. Elizabeth layer down and thought about her problems. Freud asked many questions. Finally she had an insight. she waited to tell him because he kept interrupting and asking questions

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Humanistic Therapy

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emphasizes client's own subjective (personal) experience, free will, belief system, and personal growth. rogers and Frankl

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goal of humanistic therapy

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is to treat the person as a whole.

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client-centered therapy

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Rogers. person-centered or non directive. Creating a safe and comforting setting with empathy. Unconditional positive regard. reflective listening. Establish a good therapeutic relationship between therapist and client

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reflective listening

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repeating clients' statements and seeking clarifiction

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motivational interviewing

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uses a client-centered approach over a very short period. Motivational interviewing has proved a valuable treatment for drug and alcohol abuse, as well as increasing both healthy eating habits and exercise.

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unconditional positive regard

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instead of directing the clients behavior or passing judgement on the clients actions or thoughts, the therapist helps the client focus on his or her subjective experience.

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Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy

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combines techniques com both cognitive and behavioral therapies to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors. tries to change behavior and cognition directly. Short-term and focused on concrete problems.

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Behavior therapy

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uses principles of learning and conditioning to change behavior.

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exposure

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repeatedly facing feared stimulus

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systematic desensitization

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teaches relaxation during increasingly anxiety-producing situations. Behavior modification, token economies

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Behavior modification

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Based on operant conditioning. It is a method of helping people to learn desired behaviors and unlearn unwanted behaviors. Desired behaviors are rewarded and unwanted behaviors are ignored or punished.

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token economies

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Treatment centers use token economies, in which people earn tokens for good behavior and can trade the tokens for rewards or privileges.

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Cognitive Therapy

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Beck. Tries to teach people to think in more adaptive ways.

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cognitive restructuring

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changing maladaptive thought patterns to more realistic ways of thinking

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Cognitive-Behavior Therapy (CBT)

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tries to correct the clients faulty cognitions and to train the client to engage in new behaviors. The most widely used version of psychotherapy and is one of the most effective forms for many psychological disorders

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group therapy

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Simulations treatment of several clients in a group setting.

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benefits of group therapy

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builds social support and is less expensive than individual therapy. Offers the opportunity for practice of social skills and peer learning. Addresses the importance of shared experiences.

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family therapy

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emphasizes the context of the problem. The actions and interactions of family members can become important topics during therapy

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family systems perspective

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an approach that argues that an individual is part of a larger group that can maintain or exacerbate a problem

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psychotropic medications

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Drugs that affect mental processes. The uses of psychotropic medication is based on the biological or medical model, which views psychological problems as diseases that can be treated medically.

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anti-anxiety medications

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reduce anxiety and promote relaxation but also induce drowsiness and are highly addictive. Relaxes muscles and helps sleep.

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neurotransmitters affected by anti-anxiety medications

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these drugs increase the activity of GABA, the most pervasive inhibitory neurotransmitter

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anti-anxiety drug symptoms

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induce drowsiness and are highly addictive. Should be used soaringly

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Antidepressant medications

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intended to regulate mood: for mood disorders and anxiety disorders

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three main classes of Antidepressants

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MAOls, Tricyclic Antidepressants, SSRIs

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MAO (Monoamine Oxidase)

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First antidepressants to be discovered. It is an enzyme that breaks down serotonin in the synapse. MAO inhibitors therefore stop this process and result in more serotonin being available in the synapse.

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MAO raises levels of _________

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norepinphrine and dopamine

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Tricyclic antidepressants

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named after their molecular structure of three rings. these drugs inhibit the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, resulting in more of each neurotransmitter of each neurotransmitter being available in the synapse.

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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

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Recently have been introduced. Theses drugs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, but they act on other neurotransmitters to a significantly lesser extent.

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Mood stabilizers

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drug used to treat mental disorders that do not fall into traditional categories.

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Lithium

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primary mood stabilizer. It is the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder although the neural mechanisms of how it works are unknown.

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SSRIs: how do they work at the synapse

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serotonin is deactivated in the synapse by reuptake into the presynaptic neuron. Prozac blocks the uptake of serotonin, thus increasing the activation of serotonin receptors

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controversies with antidepressants

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when SSRIs were introduced, the proportion of individuals using antidepressants doubled with 10 years growing from 37% to 74%. Antidepressants may increase suicide.

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adolescents and suicide caused by antidepressants

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SSRIs may increase suicide. For mild to moderate depression, medication may be no more effective than a placebo. Only more effective for severe depression

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antipsychotic medication

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block the effects of dopamine. not always effective. significant side effects that can be irreversible. Block the effect of dopamine

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tardive dyskinesia

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involuntary movement of the lips, tongue, face, legs, or other parts of the body. A devastating side effect of antipsychotic medication and is irreversible once the only avail be options

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alternative biological treatments

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usually used as last resorts because they are more likely to have series sir effects than either psychotherapy or medication

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psychosurgery

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the removal of portions of the brain (usually the frontal lobe) to treat psychological disorders. one of the earliest formal procedures used for severe mental illness.

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Lobotomies

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not used today. Prefrontal lobotomies were used to treat severe mental disorders, including schizophrenia, major depression and anxiety disorders

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affects of lobotomies

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patients were often listless and had flat affect. the procedure often impaired many important mental functions, such as abstract thought. planning, motivation and social interaction.

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Electroconvulsive therapy

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common in the 1950s and 1960s to treat mental disorders including schizophrenia and severe depression. currently used with some success and procedure is not at all like its early versions.

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electroconvulsive therapy today

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now occurs under anesthesia with powerful buckle relaxers

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deep brain stimulation

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newer technique that may be promising. Especially in relation to major depression and OCD

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transcranial magnetic stimulation

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A powerful electrical current produces a magnetic field. When rapidly switched on and off, this magnetic field induces and electrical current in the brain region directly below the coil, thereby interrupting neural function in that region.

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clinical psychologists

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Have a doctoral degree. Many clinical psychologists work in academic or hospital settings, where many of them conduct research in addition to providing treatment.

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Psychiatrists

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Have a medical degree and three to four additional years of specialized training in residency programs. they often work in hospitals or in private practice.Psychiatrists are the only mental health practitioners legally authorized to prescribe drugs in most of the United States

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Counseling psychologists

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often have a Ph.D in counseling psychology. They typically deal with problems of adjustment and life stress that do not involve mental illness, such as stress related to scholastic, martial and occupational problems. Most Colleges have staff members who specialize in problems common to students

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Psychiatric social workers

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most often have a masters's degree in social work (MSW) and specialized training in mental health care. in addition to working with patients in psychiatric hospitals, they may visit people in their homes and address problems arising from home environments.

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psychiatric nurse

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typically have a bachelor's degree in nursing (BSN) and special training in the care of mentally ill patients. They often work in hospitals or in residential treatment programs that specialize in serious mental illness.

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Paraprofessionals

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have limited advanced training, do not need a degree, and usually work under supervision. They assist those with mental health problems in the challenges of daily living.

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consumer reports study

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86% felt they were improved after psychotherapy. 89% were satisfied with their experience. problems with self-reporting and regression to mean. Need for randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses of those studies

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Seligman 1996

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people rated their mental health practitioners as more effective for treating their mental health problems than family doctors.

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self-reports

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people are motivated to believe that their efforts were successful.

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regression to the mean

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things just get better

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debriefing

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including encouraging people to describe their experiences following major trauma. Therapy doesn't work

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DARE

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having police officers run drug education programs. Therapy doesn't work

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randomized controlled trials

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research that randomly assigns patients to either treatment or control groups

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meta-analysis

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research that analyzes many studies on the same topic. studies show that psychotherapy was effective for a range of problems

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adult anxiety disorders

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cognitive-behavioral therapy works best to treat many adult anxiety disorders. specific phobias treated with exposure.

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what treatments work for depression

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Pharmacological treatment, Cognitive-Behavioral therapy, Phototherapy, aerobic exercise, Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), Transcranial magnetic stimulation, deep brain stimulation

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Bipolar disorder

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Pharmacological treatment recommend: lithium and other mood stabilizers seem to balance neurotransmitter levels.

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unpleasant side effects for lithium

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thirst, hand tremors, excessive urination and memory problems

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schizophrenia

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medication is primary, but it does not substantially help patient's social functioning. adding social skills train gin and family therapy significantly improves outcome. Psychodynamic, group or cognitive-behavioral therapy can also be critical in improving outcomes

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borderline personality disorder

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Dialectical Behavior therapy is most successful

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Dialectical behavior therapy

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combines elements of the behavioral and cognitive treatments with a mindfulness approach based on eastern meditative practices

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first stage of DBT

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therapists targets the patient's most extreme and dysfunctional behaviors. The patient learns problem solving techniques and learns how to deal with his or her emotions

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Second stage of DBT

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The therapist helps the patient explore past traumatic experiences that may be at the root of emotional problems

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third stage of DBT

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Therapists helps the patient develop self-respect and independent problem solving. This rage is crucial because patients with borderline personality disorder depend heavily on others for support and validation. Patients must be able to generate the appropriate attitudes and necessary skills themselves or they are likely to revert to their previous behavior patterns

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Anti-social personality disorder

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difficult to treat.

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social psychology

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the study of how we influence each other. How we perceive and think about others. How we function in groups. Why we stigmatize and discriminate against certain people. Why we hurt or help people

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stanford prison experiment (Zimbardo)

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shows power of social roles and context. led by Phillip Zimbardo at Stanford. study of psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or a guard. 24 healthy students randomly assigned to role of prisoner or guard in a fake "prison". Ended early after the experiment got out of control. Influenced our social roles and situations on behavior

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nonverbal behavior

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first impressions are greatly influenced by nonverbal cues

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thin slices of behavior (ambady and rosenthal)

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Brief observation of body language. Accurant judgements can be made after only few seconds; this is referred to as impression formation. Happiness, hostility, anger, and sexual orientation have been accurately predicted by observing a few seconds of how a person walks

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facial expressions

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especially eye contact, is one of the first things people notice. Interpretation of facial expression varies by culture

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attributions

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peoples explanation for why actions and events occur, including behavior

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just-world hypothesis

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the need to believe that the world is fair, or that justice is served. Can lead to victim -blaming

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attributions theory (header)

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People are motivated to draw inferences in part by basic need for order and predictability in their lives

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personal attribution

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Within a person, such as abilities, traits, moods, or effort. Internal, dispositional. "He's such a careless driver, He never watches our for others cars."

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situational attribution

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Outside events, accidents or the actions of other people. External, temporary. "He probably got caught in some bad traffic, and then he was late for a meeting."

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self-serving bias

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choosing explanation that are favorable to oneself. The tendency to take credit for success and to deny responsibility for failures. "My car was legally parked as it backed in to the other vehicle"

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fundamental attribution error

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In judging other people's behaviors, we tend to: Overestimate the importance of personality traits and underestimate the importance of the situation.

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example of fundamental attribution error

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"why are so many people homeless?" Personal: "they are lazy and unmotivated"

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actor/observer discrepancy

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when interpreting our own behaviors, we focus on the situation. when interpreting other's behaviors, we focus on disposition.

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sterotypes

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attitudes and beliefs about groups. Cognitive schema that help us organize information about people on the basis of their membership in certain groups. Do not consider variations between individuals.

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purpose of sterotypes

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To streamline our formation of impressions and to deal with the limitations inherent in mental processing. Help us organize information about people on the basis of their membership in certain groups

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subtyping

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When we encounter someone who does not fit a stereotype, we put that person in a special category rather than alter the stereotype

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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tendency to behave in way that confirm one;s own or others' expectations. Rosenthal's study of "academic blooming"

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stereotypes threat

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tendency for stereotypes to influence members of the stereotyped group. Fear of being judged based on negative stereotypes

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stereotypes and perception

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stereotypes affect both our perception and memory. We tend to perceive what we expect to perceive (perceptual confirmation). We tend to remember the information that already matches our stereotypes

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prejudice

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negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs toward others based solely on their membership in a certain group

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discrimination

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inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice

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ingroup

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groups to which we belong

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outgroup

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groups to which we do not belong

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ingroup favoritism

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people favor or privilege members of their ingroup

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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people assume that members of an out group are all alike

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inhibiting stereotypes

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alter our stereotype thinking. difficult and requires self-control

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reducing prejudice

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cooperation: working together for a greater purpose may help people overcome group hostilities. Superordinate goal or task-oriented cooperation

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Attitudes

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people's evaluations of objects, events, or ideas. Opinions, beliefs and feelings. Shaped by social context. Shape how we evaluate and interact with other people

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attitudes can be formed through experience

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Throughout life, we encounter new things. When we hear about things or experience them directly, we learn about them and perhaps explore them. We gain information that shapes our attitudes.

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mere exposure effect

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Greater exposure to the item, and therefore greater familiarity with it, caused people to have more-positive attitudes about the item

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Attitudes can be formed through conditioning

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Because our associations between things and their meaning can change, our attitudes can be conditioned. Classic and Operant conditioning.

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attitudes can be formed through socialization

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our beliefs are heavily influenced by our peers' beliefs.

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When do attitudes predict behavior?

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The stronger and more personally relevant the attitude, the more likely it is to predict behavior. The strong and personally relevant nature of the attitude will lead the person to act the same across situations related to that attitude. It will also lead the person to defend the attitude.

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Explicit

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those you are aware of and can report. If you say you like bowling, you are stating your explicit attitude toward it

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Implicit

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Those you are not aware of. Influence feelings and behavior at an unconscious level

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implicit Association Test

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A method that researchers use to asses implicit attitudes this reaction time test. The IAT measures how quickly a person associates concepts or objects with positive or negative words. Responding more quickly to the association female=bad than to female=good indicates your implicit attitude about females

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Cognitive Dissonance

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an uncomfortable state that occurs when there is a contradiction between two attitudes or an attitude and a behavior. The inconsistency cause anxiety and tension

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How do people reduce dissonance

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People reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviors; they sometimes also rationalize and trivialize the discrepancies.

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postdecisional dissonance

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after decision, focus on positive aspects of selected option and negative aspects of rejected option.

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insufficient justification

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change behavior first, with little incentive or reason. Attitude changes. (Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959)

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classic study of cognitive dissonance (Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959)

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Participants who were paid only $1 to mislead a fellow participant experienced cognitive dissonance, which led them to alter their attitudes about how pleasurable the task had been

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Effort justification

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Choosing pain, embarrassment or discomfort to join a group leads to a great deal of dissonance. To resolve, they inflate the importance of the group and their commitment. Helps explain why people choose to experience hazing

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Persuasion

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is the active and conscious effort to change an attitude throughout the transmission of a message.

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source of persuasion

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Who delivers the message. Sources who are both attractive and credible are the most persuasive. Thus television ads for medicines and medical services often feature very attractive people playing the roles of physicians.

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content of persuasion

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What the message says.

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receiver of persuasion

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Who processes the message

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Elaboration likelihood model

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A theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes

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central route

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when people are motivated to process information to process that information persuasion takes the central route

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Peripheral route

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When people are either not motivated to process information or are unable to process it, persuasion takes the peripheral route

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individuals in groups

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sometimes the presence of others improves our performance but sometimes it impairs it

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social facilitation

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The presence of others increases arousal. Arousal enhance the "dominant" response. Simple responses are improved but more complex responses are impaired. The presence of others may interfere with cognition.

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social Loafing

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in groups we may be lazy. People work less hard in a group than when working alone. When no one person's efforts are identified

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Deindividuation

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We may do things we wouldn't otherwise. People sometimes lose their individuality when they become part of a group. State of reduced individuality, self-awareness, an attention to personal standards. When aroused, anonymous and when responsibility is diffused

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group polarization

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initial attitudes of members determine whether group is riskier or more cautious

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groupthink

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extreme form of group polarization that results when members are very concerned with maintaining the groups cohesiveness. Groups convince themselves that they are correct.

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how to avoid groupthink?

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dissent must be allowed and respected

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conformity

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altering one's behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations. Adhering to social norms or expectations. Necessary in ca civilized society, to some degree.

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normal influence

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occurs when we go along with the crowd to avoid looking foolish

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information influence

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occurs when we assume that the behavior of the crowd represents the correct way to respond

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Asch studies (1955)

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objective line length task. assembled male participants for a study of visual acuity. in 18 trials, the participants looked at a reference line and three comparison lines. They decided which of the three comparison lines matched the reference line and said there answers aloud. Asch included a naive participant with group of five confederates who pretended to be participants. 1/3 they went along with confederates. 3/4 they conformed to the incorrect response at least once

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How many participants conformed at least once, when confederates gave false answers first?

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3 out of four

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social norms

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expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior

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obedience (Milgram Experiment)

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in the 1960s, Stanley Milgram conducted one of the most controversial studies in social psychology on obedience. Nearly 2/3rds of participants completely obeyed the experimenter, providing what they believed was a shock sufficient to kill the supposed learner. A recent relocation found 70% of the participants were obedient up to the maximum voltage