Psychology Exam 3

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Central nervous system

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of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord

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Spinal cord

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a collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the bade of the brain down the center of the back, protected by a column of bones(the spinal column).

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Spinal reflexes

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automatic behaviors produced by the spinal cord without brain involvement.

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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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all portions of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord; it includes sensory and motor nerves.

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Somatic nervous system

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the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects to sensory receptors and to skeletal muscles; sometimes called the skeletal nervous system

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Autonomic nervous system

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the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the internal organs and glands.

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sympathetic nervous system

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the subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes bodily resources and increases the output of energy during emotion and stress

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that operates during relaxed states and that conserves energy

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neuron

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a cell that conducts electrochemical signals; the basic unit of the nervous system; also called a nerve cell.

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glia

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cells that support, nurture, and insulate neurons, remove debris when neurons die, and modify neuronal functioning

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dendrites

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a neuron's branches that receive information from other neurons and transmit it toward the cell body

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cell body

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the part of the neuron that keeps it alive and determines whether it will fire

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axon

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a neuron's extending fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body and transmits them to other neurons or to muscle or gland cells

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myelin sheath

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a fatty insulation that may surround the axon or a neuron

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nerve

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a bundle of nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system

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stem cells

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immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential to developinto mature cells

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synapse

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the site where transmission of a nerve impulse from one nerve cell to another occurs; it includes the axon terminal, the synaptic cleft, and receptor sites in the membrane of the receiving cell

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plasticity

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the brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience

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action potential

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a brief change in electrical voltage that occurs when a neuron is stimulated; it serves to produce an electric impulse

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neurotransmitter

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a chemical substance that is released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity of a receiving neuron

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endorphins

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chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates; they are involved in pain reduction, pleasure, and memory

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hormones

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chemical substances, secretedby organs called glands, that affect the functioning of other organs

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endocrine glands

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internal organs that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream

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melatonin

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a hormone, secreted by the pineal gland, that is involved in the regulation of daily biological rhythms

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adrenal hormones

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hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands and that are involved in emotion and stress

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sex hormones

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hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs and that stimulate the development of male and female sexual characteristics

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PET scan

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a method for analyzing biochemical activity in the brain, using injections of glucoselike substance containing a radioactive element

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MRI

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a method for studying body and brain tissue, using magnetic fields and special radio receivers

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brain stem

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the part of the brain at the top of the spinal cord, consisting of the medulla and the pons

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pons

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a structure in the brainstem involved in, amond other things, sleeping, walking, and dreaming

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medulla

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a structure in the brain stem responsible for certain automatic functions, such as breathing and heart rate

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cerebellum

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a brain structure that regulates movement and balance and that is involved in some cognitive tasks

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thalamus

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a brain structure that relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortex

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hypothalamus

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a brain structure involved in emotions and drives vital to survival; it regulates the automatic nervous system

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pituitary gland

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a small endocrine gland at the base of the brain that releases many hormones and regulates other endocrine glands

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limbic system

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a group of brain areas involved in emotional reatctions and motivated behavior

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amygdala

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a brain structure involved in the arousal and regulation of emotion and the initial emotional response to sensory information

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hippocampus

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a brain structure involved in the storage of new information in memory

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cerebrum

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the largest brain structure, consisting of the upper part of the brain; sensory, motor, and cognitive processes

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cerebral hemispheres

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the two halfs of the cerebrum

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corpus collasum

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the bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

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cerebral cortex

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a collection of several thin layers of cells covering the cerebrum; it is largely responsible for higher mental functions

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learning

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a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

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behaviorism

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an approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior

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conditioning

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a basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses

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unconditioned stimulus

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the classical conditioning term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning

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unconditioned response

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the classical conditioning term for a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning

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conditioned stimulus

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the classical conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned response

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the classical conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus

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classical conditioning

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the process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response

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extinction

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the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

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higher-order conditioning

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in classical conditioning, a procedure inwhich a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus

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stimulus generalization

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after conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resmebles on involved in the original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the CS elitics the CR

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stimulus discrimination

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the tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke the CR

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counterconditioning

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in classical conditioning, the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatable with an unwanted conditioned response

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operant conditioning

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the process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences

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reinforcement

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the process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows

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punishment

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the process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows

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primary reinforcer

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a stimulus that is inherently reinforcing, typically satisfying a physiological need; ie:food

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primary punisher

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a stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is electric shock

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secondary reinforcer

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a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcers

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secondary punisher

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a stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers

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positive reinforcement

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a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur

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negative reinforcement

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a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of, an unpleasant stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur

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stimulus generalization

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the tendency for a response that has been reinforced in the presence of one stimulus to occur in the presence of other similar stimuli

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stimulus discrimination

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the tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of other, similar that differ from it on some dimension

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discriminative stimulus

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a stimulus that signals when a particular response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence

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continuous reinforcement

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a reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is always reinforced

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shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced

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successive approximations

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in the procedure of shaping, behaviors that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response

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extrinsic reinforcers

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reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced

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intrinsic reinforcers

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reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced

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latent learning

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a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement

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observational learning

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a process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience

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mental disorder

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any behavior or emotional state that causes a person great suffering, is self-destructive, seriously impairs the person's ability to work or get along with others or the community

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projective tests

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psychological tests used to infer a person's motives, conflicts, and unconscious dynamics on the basis of the person's interpretations or ambiguous stimuli

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

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A projective personality test that requires respondents to interpret abstract, symmetrical inkblots

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objective tests

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Standardized objective questionnaires requiring written responses

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generalized anxiety disorder

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a continuous state of anxiety marked by feelings of worry and dread, apprehension, difficulties in concentration, and signs of motor tension

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phobia

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an exaggerated, unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or object

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agoraphobia

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a set of phobias, often set off by a panic attack, involving the basic fear of being away from a safe place or person

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vulnerability-stress models

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approaches that emphasize how individual vulnerabilities interact with external stresses or circumstances to produce mental disorders

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paranoid personality disorder

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a disorder characterized by unreasonable, excessive suspiciousness and mistrust, and irrational feelings of being persecuted by others

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narcissicstic personality disorder

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a disorder characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and self-absorption

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dissociative identity disorder

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a controversila disorder marked by the apparent appearance within one person of two or more distinct personalities, each with its own name and traits

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schizophrenia

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a psychotic disorder marked by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and incoherent speech, inappropriate behavior, and cognitive

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motivation

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an inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation

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intrinsic motivation

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the desire to do something for its own sake and for the internal pleasure it provides

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extrinsic motivation

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the desire to so something for the sake of external rewards, such as money or fame

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sexual scripts

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sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person's gender, age, religion, social status, and peer group

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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an expectation that is fulfilled because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about

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self-efficacy

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a person's belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results