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163 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the key theme of the Social studies? |
Responses to people in authority. |
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What are the two studies in the Social area? |
Milgram and Bocchiaro et al. |
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What was Milgram studying? |
Obedience. |
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What was Bocchiaro et al studying? |
Disobedience and whistleblowing. |
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What year did Milgram's study take place? |
1963. |
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What year did Bocchiaro et al's study take place? |
2012. |
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What does obedience involve? [3] |
- Being ordered or instructed to do something - Being influenced by an authority figure of superior status - The maintenance of social power and status of the authority figure in a hierarchical society |
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What was the background to Milgram's study? |
From 1933-45 millions of innocent people were systematically slaughtered on command. Such inhumane acts could only have been carried out on such a massive scale because large numbers of people obeyed. |
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What was the aim of Milgram's study? |
To investigate the process of obedience by testing how far an individual will go in obeying an authority figure, even when the command breaches the moral code that an individual should not hurt another person against his will. |
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What was Milgram's research method? [4] |
- Milgram refers to it as an experiment, considered controlled observation as no IV - Took place in lab at Yale university so conditions could be controlled - Data gathered through observations made by both experimenter in same room as participant and others who observed through one-way mirrors - Prior to study 14 Yale senior psychology majors predicted percentage of participants who would administer highest shock; ranged from 1-3% (Mean 1.2) |
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What was the sample used in Milgram's study? [4] |
- 40 males aged 20-50 from New haven area - Obtained by newspaper advert and direct mail solicitation which asked volunteers to participate in study of memory and learning at Yale - Wide range of occupations in sample - Participants paid $4.50 for simply appearing at laboratory |
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Outline Milgram's procedure. [10] |
- 40 participants always given the role of teacher (through a fixed lottery) - Saw learner strapped into chair with non-active electrodes attached to his arms, given trial shock of 40 volts to simulate genuineness - Teacher sat in front of electric shock generator is adjacent room - Had to conduct paired word test on learner; give electric shock of increased intensity for every wrong answer - Machine had 30 switches ranging from 15-450 volts, 15 volt increments - Learner produced set on predetermined responses on a tape recording, approx 3 wrong answers to every correct one - At 300 volts pounded on wall and made no replies - If teacher turned to experimenter, responded with a series of predetermined responses - Study finished when teacher refused to continue (disobedient) or reached 450 volts (obedient) - Participant then fully debreifed |
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What are some key findings from Milgram? [6] |
- All Yale seniors predicted only minority would go to end of shock series, 65% of participants continued to 450 - All participants continued to 300 volts - 26 obedient, 4 disobedient - Many showed signs of extreme stress whilst administering shocks, 3 had full-blown uncontrollable seizures - On completion of test, many participants heaved sighs of relief |
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What were some explanations Milgram offered for the high levels of obedience? [3] |
- Prestigious university of Yale influenced participants as to the worthiness of the study - Participants told shocks were not harmful - Situation completely new for participant so had no past experience to guide behaviour |
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What are some conclusions to Milgram's study? [4] |
- Inhumane acts can be done by ordinary people - People will obey those they consider a legitimate authority figure even if asked to do something against their moral beliefs - People obey because certain situational features lead the to suspend their sense of autonomy and become an agent of an authority figure - Individual differences influence extent to which people will be obedient |
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What is the key conclusion from Milgram's study? |
People will carry out behaviours against theirs and societies norms if the authority figure seems legit. |
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How does Milgram's study relate to the key theme? |
Milgram's study tells us that obedience to those in authority even when they are asking us to cause harm to someone else is more common than we would like to believe. |
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How does Milgram's study relate to the Social area of psychology? |
It is revealing the extent to which people's behaviour can be influenced by other people around them. |
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What is a whistleblower? |
A person who exposes/informs on a person or organisation regarded as engaging in unlawful or immoral activity. |
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What is the background to Bocchiaro et al's study? |
There is little known about: - Who are the people who disobey or blow the whistle? - Why do they choose the challenging moral path? - Do they have personal characteristics that differentiate from those who obey? |
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What was Bocchiaro et al's research method? [4] |
- No independent variable so classed as laboratory study - Took place in lab at VU university in Amsterdam so conditions could be controlled - Data gathered on number of participants who obeyed by writing a statement in support of the study, those who disobeyed, those who became whistleblowers and through scores on two personality inventories - 138 comparison students asked "What would you do?" and "What would the average student at your university do?" |
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What were the two personality tests administered by Bocchiaro et al? [2] |
- Dutch version of HEXACO-PI-R measured six major dimensions of personality - Decomposed Games Measure measured Social Value Orientation (SVO) |
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What was the sample used by Bocchiaro et al? [4] |
- 149 undergraduates, 96 women 53 men - Mean age 20.8, SD 2.65 - Took part in exchange for course credit or 7 euros - 11 participants removed from initial sample of 160 because of suspiciousness on nature of study |
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What was the procedure of Bocchiaro et al's study? [12] |
- 8 pilot tests involving 92 undergraduates conducted to ensure procedure was credible and morally acceptable - Participants were informed on task, about right to withdraw and assured of confidentiality - Each participant greeted by Dutch experimenter formally dressed with stern demeanour - Experimenter asked for names of fellow students then presented cover story - Left room for 3 minutes to allow participants to reflect - Participants moved to second room where there was a computer to write statement, a mailbox and Research committee forms - Told to be enthusiastic when writing statements, had to use two of "exciting" "incredible" "great" and "superb" - Negative effects of sleep deprivation not to be mentioned - Experimenter told participants to begin, left room for 7 minutes - If participant believed research violated ethical norms they could anonymously challenge it by putting form in mailbox - Experimenter returned and they went back to first room - Administered two personality inventories, probed for suspicion, fully debriefed and asked to sign second consent form |
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What was the cover story presented by Bocchiaro et al? [5] |
- Experimenter and Italian colleague were investigating effects of sleep deprivation on brain function - Recently conducted experiment on 6 people in Rome had disastrous effects; 2 asked to stop but not allowed - Wanted to replicate it at VU, no data on young people but thought may be more sensitive to negative effects - University Research committee was evaluating whether to approve study and was collecting feedback from students - Participants were to write a statement to convince students to participate in experiment |
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What were the key findings of Bocchiaro et al's study? [7] |
- In comparison group only 3.6% indicated would obey experimenter, 31.9% believed they would whistleblow, 64.5% believed they would disobey - Only 18.8% though students would obey, believed most would disobey (43.9%) or whisteblow (37.3%) - 76.5% obeyed, 14.1% disobeyed, 9.4% blew whsitle - 6% of whistleblowers had written a message (anonymous) and 3.4% had refused to do so (open) - No significant differences in relation to gender, religious affiliation or religious involvement - Significant different with regard to faith - Results for difference in personality showed no significant difference |
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What are possible conclusions from Bocchiario et al's study? [4] |
- People tend to obey authority figures even if the authority is unjust - Individuals behave in completely different ways than expected when they find themselves in certain circumstances that are unfamiliar - Behaving in a moral manor is challenging for people, even when the reaction appears to observers as the simplest path to follow - Trend suggests whistleblowers have more faith than than either obedient or disobedient individuals |
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What is the key conclusion of Bocchiaro et al's study? |
People don't always think they will obey requests from people in authority but their behaviour suggests they will when situations are unfamiliar or novel. |
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How does Bocchiaro et al's study relate to the key theme? |
It tells us that people are as obedient now in 2012 and they were in the early 1960s, that people in the Netherlands are at least as obedient as people in the USA and people are ore likely to be obedient than they think they are. |
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How does Bocciaro et al's study relate to Social psychology? |
It is confirming the influence that other people can have on our behaviour. |
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How are the two studies in the Social area similar? [6] |
- Were recruited in same self selected way - Received payment for involvement - Took part individually - Took part in laboratory on university campus - Led through scenario by formally dressed male with stern demeanour - Experienced high level of deception |
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How are the two studies in the Social area different? [4] |
- Carried out in different countries - Carried out in different time periods - Milgram's sample was all male, Bocchiaro et al's sample included female participants - In Bocchairo et al's study participants were left on their own and given 'cooling off' time |
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What is the key theme of the Cognitive studies? |
Memory. |
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What are the two studies in the Cognitive area? |
Loftus and Palmer and Grant et al. |
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What was Loftus and Palmer studying? |
Eyewitness testimony. |
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What was Grant et al studying? |
Context-dependent memory. |
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What year was Loftus and Palmer? |
1974. |
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What year was Grant et al? |
1998. |
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What is Schema theory? [2] |
- Proposes that memory is influenced by what an individual already knows, that use of their past experience to deal with a new experience is a fundamental feature of the way the mind works - Knowledge is stored as set of schema, generalised mental representations of everything an individual understands by a given type of object or event based on past experiences |
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What does memory involve? |
Interpreting what is seen or heard, recording bits of it and then reconstructing these bits into memories when required. |
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What is the background to Loftus and Palmer's study? |
- Conducted many studies investigating ways in which memory can be distorted - Focuses on effect of 'leading questions' on individual's ability to accurately remember events - Expectation was that any information subtly introduced after the even through leading questions would distort original memory |
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What was the research method for Experiment 1 in Loftus and Palmer's study? [4] |
- Laboratory experiment using an independent measures design - IV was wording of critical question hidden in questionnaire - Question asked "About how fast were the cars going when they hit/smashed/collided/contacted/bumped each other?" - DV was the estimated speed given by participant |
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What was the research method for Experiment 2 in Loftus and Palmer's study? [7] |
- Laboratory experiment using independent measures design - IV was wording on a question in a questionnaire - One group asked "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" - Second group asked "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" - Third group not asked about speed - One week later, participants asked to complete questionnaire which contained critical question "Did you see any broken glass?" - DV was whether answer to question was yes or no |
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What was the sample in Experiment 1 of Loftus and Palmer's study? |
45 students divided into 5 groups, 9 ppts in each group. |
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What was the sample in Experiment 2 of Loftus and Palmer's study? |
150 students divided into 3 groups, 50 ppts in each group. |
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What was the procedure of Experiment 1 of Loftus and Palmer's study? [4] |
- All participants shown the same 7 film clips of different traffic accidents, originally made as part of driver safety film - After each, ppts given questionnaire which asked to describe accident and answer series of questions about it - Critical question "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" - One group given this question, other 4 given verbs 'smashed' 'collided' 'contacted' or 'bumped' instead of 'hit' |
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What was the procedure of Experiment 2 of Loftus and Palmer's study? [7] |
- All shown one-minute film which contained 4-second multiple car crash - Given questionnaire which asked them to describe accident and answer questions about it - One group asked "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" - Second group asked "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" - Third group not asked about speed - One week later, participants asked to complete questionnaire which contained critical question "Did you see any broken glass?" - There had been no broken glass in the film |
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What were the key findings of Experiment 1 of Loftus and Palmer's study? [4] |
- Smashed produced fastest speed estimates (40.5mph) and contacted the slowest (31.8mph) - Crash of 20mph estimated at 37.7mph - Crash of 30mph estimated at 36.2mph - Crash of 40mph estimated at 39.7mph |
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What were the key findings of Experiment 2 of Loftus and Palmer's study? [2] |
- More participants in 'smashed' condition than either hit or control groups reported seeing broken glass - Majority of participants in each group correctly recalled that they had not seen any broken glass |
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What are some conclusions of Loftus and Palmer's study? [3] |
- The verb used in a question influences a participant's response - People are not very good at judging vehicular speed - Misleading post event information can distort an individual's memory |
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What are the two kinds of information that go into our memory? [4] |
- Firstly the information gleaned during the perception of the original event - Secondly the post-event information that is gained after the fact - Information from the two sources will integrate over time and we will be unable to decipher which source the information came from - We are therefore unable to tell whether our memory is accurate |
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What is a key conclusion from Loftus and Palamer's study? |
Memory recall is formed using information from the initial event the memory was created in as well as post-event information. |
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How does Loftus and Palmer's study relate to the key theme? |
It provides empirical evidence into the effects of information received after the event on a person's memory of an event. |
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How does Loftus and Palmer's study fit into Cognitive psychology? |
It it investigating the cognitive process of memory. Aimed to investigate re-constructive nature of it. |
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What is context-dependent memory? |
Improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same. |
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What is the background to Grant et al's study? [3] |
- Research has shown that context-dependence may plan an important role in numerous situations - Grant et al interested in determining whether environmental context-dependency effects would be found with the type of material and tests in school - Aimed to show environmental context can have positive effect on performance in memory test when test takes place in same environment material was studied |
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What was the research method used by Grant et al? [4] |
- Laboratory experiment using independent measures design - IVs were whether participant read article under silent or noisy conditions and whether participant was tested under matching or mismatching conditions - First and second IV manipulated in a between-subjects factorial design, producing four conitions - DV was the participant's performance on short answer recall test and multiple-choice recall test |
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What was the sample used is Grant et al's study? [4] |
- 8 members of a psychology laboratory class served as experimenters - Each recruited 5 acquaintances to serves as participants - 39 participants 17-56 (mean 23.4) - 17 female, 23 male (1 participant's results omitted from analysis) |
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What was the procedure of Grant et al's study? [9] |
- Each experimenter ran one participant for each of the four conditions and an additional participant for one of conditions as assigned by instructor - Experimenters randomly assigned participants to five conditions - Instructions read aloud, stated participation was voluntary - Participants asked to read article once, allowed to highlight and underline - Informed comprehension would be tested - All wore headphones while they read and reading times were recorded by experimenters - Break of two minutes between study and test to minimise recall from short term memory - Participants tested in either silent or noisy conditions, headphones worn regardless - At end participants were debreifed |
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What was the stimuli used in Grant et al's study? [8] |
- Each experimenter provided own cassette player and headphones - 8 cassettes were exact copies made from master tape of background noise recorded during lunchtime in university cafeteria - Tape played at moderately loud level - Two-page, three-columned article on psychoimmunology selected to-be-studied material - 16 multiple choice questions tested memory for points stated in text - 10 short answer questions derived from multiple-choice - Order of questions followed order in which the points were made in the text - Short answer test administered first to ensure recall of information was being tested not recall of multiple choice |
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What were the key findings of Grant et al? [3] |
- Results suggest participants spent roughly equal amounts of time studying the material - Studying and testing produced better results - No overall effect of noise on performance |
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What conclusions could you draw from Grant et al? [3] |
- There are context-dependency effects for newly learned and meaningful material regardless of whether a short answer or multiple choice test is used - Studying and testing in same environment leads to enhanced performance - Students likely to perform better in exams with minimum background noise (evidence for context-dependency shows they are better off studying without noise as it will not be present during testing) |
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What is a key conclusion of Grant et al? |
Memory recall is improved where the recall environment is the same as the environment the memory was formed in. |
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How does Grant et al relate to the key theme? |
Demonstrates that, in the case of newly learnt meaningful material, students' memory was improved by studying and testing in matching environments. |
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How does Grant et al fit into Cognitive psychology? |
It is investigating the cognitive processes of memory, specifically context-dependent memory. |
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How are the two studies in the Cognitive area similar? [5] |
- Both highly controlled lab studies on university campuses - Both used independent measures design - Samples both made up entirely of university students - Both conducted ethically - Both gathered quantitative data |
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How are the two studies in the Cognitive area different? [2] |
- Loftus and Palmer investigated re-constructive memory in eyewitness testimony, Grant et al were looking at context-dependent memory - Loftus and Palmer could not generalise to intended target population due to student bias, Grant et al could because their target population was students |
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What is the key theme of the Developmental studies? |
External influences on children's behaviour. |
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Which two studies are in the Developmental area? |
Bandura et al and Chaney et al. |
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What is Bandura et al studying? |
Transmission of aggression. |
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What is Chaney et al studying? |
Funhaler study. |
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What year was Bandura et al? |
1961. |
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What year was Chaney et al? |
2004. |
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How does SLT explain human behaviour? [2] |
- Explains human behaviour in terms of continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences - According to SLT aggressive behaviours are learned through reinforcement and imitation of aggressive models |
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What is imitation? |
The reproduction of learning through observation, involves observing other people who serve as models for behaviour. |
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What was the background to Bandura et al? [3] |
- Previous research shown children will readily imitate behaviour demonstrated by adult model if model remains present - Little known about how behaviour displayed by model may affect individual when model is not present - Aim was to demonstrate learning can occur through mere observation of a model, imitation of learned behaviour can occur in absence of model |
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What were the hypotheses of Bandura et al? [4] |
- Children shown aggressive models with show significantly more imitative aggressive acts resembling those of their models than those shown non-aggressive or no models - Children shown non-aggressive, subdued models will show significantly less aggressive behaviour than those shown aggressive or no models - Boys will show significantly more imitative aggression than girls - Children will imitate same-sex model behaviour to greater degree than opposite-sex behaviour |
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What was the research method used by Bandura et al? [4] |
- Laboratory experiment used an independent, matched participants design - IVs were whether child witnessed aggressive or non-aggressive model, the sex of the model and the sex of the child - DV was amount of imitative behaviour shown by child, measure by male model and researcher observing through one way mirror - Each child on participated in either one of experimental conditions |
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How were the participants in Bandura et al matched? [3] |
- Rated on four five-point rating scales by experimenter and nursery teacher - Measured extent to which participants displayed physical aggression verbal aggression towards inanimate objects and aggressive inhibition - Participants arranged in triplets, randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups or to control group |
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What was the sample used by Bandura et al? |
72 children (36 boys, 36 girls) aged 37-69 months from Stanford University Nursery School. |
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What was the procedure of Phase 1 by Bandura et al? [4] |
- Children individually taken to a room and sat at table to play with potato prints and stickers for ten minutes - Aggressive model began assembling tinker toy set but then stated physcially and verbally abusing bobo doll - Non-aggressive model assembled tinker toys and ignored bobo doll - Control group did not participate in phase 1 |
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What was the procedure for Phase 2 by Bandura et al? [3] |
- Taken to another room and subjected to mild aggression arousal - Initially allowed to play with good toys but after two minutes experimenter said they were for the good children - Could play with any toys in next room |
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What was the procedure for Phase 3 by Bandura et al? [2] |
- Children taken to third room with aggressive and non aggressive toys - Observed through one way window for 20 minutes |
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How did observers record behaviour in Phase 3 of Bandura et al? |
Into four categories: - Imitative aggression - Partially imitative aggression - Non imitative physical and verbal aggression - Non aggressive behaviour |
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What are the key findings of Bandura et al? [7] |
- Children in aggressive condition showed significantly more imitation of physical and verbal aggressive behaviour and non-aggressive verbal responses - Children in aggressive condition showed more partial imitation and non-imitative physical and verbal aggression - Children in non-aggressive condition showed very little aggression - Boys imitated male models more than girls for physical and verbal aggression, non-imitative aggression and gun play - Girls imitated female models more than boys for verbal imitative aggression and non-imitation aggression - Behaviour of male model exerted greater influence than female one - Boys produced more imitative physical aggression than girls |
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What are some conclusions from Bandura et al? [5] |
- Children will imitate aggressive/non-aggressive behaviours displayed by adult models, even if the model is not present - Children can learn behaviour through observation and imitation - Behaviour modelled by male adults has a greater influence on children's behaviour than behaviour modelled by female adult - Both boys and girls more likely to learn highly masculine typed behaviour such as physical aggression from a male adult rather than a female - Boys and girls are likely to learn verbal aggression from a same-sex adult |
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What is a key conclusion of Bandura et al? |
Children's behaviour is shaped by the adult role models they interact with and therefore children acquire behaviour through observation. |
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How does Bandura et al relate to the key theme? |
Demonstrates the importance of the environment in which the child is brought up as these factors will shape a person's behaviour. |
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How does Bandura et al relate to Developmental psychology? |
It is investigating how the environment around a child can affect the behaviours they end up adopting themselves. |
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What is operant conditioning? [2] |
- A form of associative learning whereby associations and connections are formed between stimuli and responses that didn't exist before learning occurs - Involved learning through the consequences of behavioural responses |
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What is the background to Chaney et al's study? [2] |
- Behaviour therapy and modification have been major approaches used to improve adherence to prescribed medical regimes - Poor adherence to prescribed frequency and technique remains a major problem for asthmatics on medication |
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What was the aim of Chaney et al? |
Show that use of novel "funhaler" which incorporated toys into inspiratory valve (whilst not compromising drug delivery) could provide positive reinforcement which leads to improved adherence. |
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What was the research method used by Chaney et al? [3] |
- Field experiment, conducted in participant's home in Australia, repeated measures design - IVs were whether the child used normal inhaler device or Funhaler - DV was the amount of adherence to prescribed medical regime |
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What was the sample of Chaney et al's study? [2] |
- 32 children (22 male 10 female) mean age 3.2 years - Parents provided informed consent and participated in study through completing questionnaires and phone interviews |
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Outline the procedure of Chaney et al. [6] |
- Participants asked to use a Funhaler instead of normal inhaler to administer their medication - Matched questionnaires completed by parents after use of each inhaler - First questionnaire at beginning before use of funhaler, second after two weeks of using it - Data collected from self-report related to how easy each device was use, compliance of parents and children and treatment attitudes - During course each parent called randomly to see if they had tried to medicate their child the day before - Funhaler incorporates number of features to distract children from drug delivery and provide means of self reinforcing use of effective technique |
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How was the Funhaler made to appeal to children? [4] |
- Puts toys outside expiratory valve to avoid problems of contamination and interference of drug delivery - Design of toys ensures sufficient inspiratory resistance to minimise entrainment of inspired air through toy circuit - Attempts to link optimal function of toys and deep breathing pattern conducive to effective medication - Anticipates potential of boredom with toys, arrangement allows replacement of different toys |
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What are some key findings of Chaney et al? [4] |
- Use of Funhaler associated with improved parent and child compliance - 38% more parents found to have medicated the day before with Funhaler compared to other inhaler - 60% more children took reccomeneded four or more cycles per aerosol delivery when using Funhaler - More parents reported always successful in medicating with Funhaler 22/30 than normal 3/30 |
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What are the conclusions of Chaney et al? [4] |
- Improved adherence, combined with satisfactory delivery characteristics suggest Funhaler may be useful for young asthmatics - Use of Funhaler could be translated to improve measures of clinical outcome - Use of functional incentive devices such as Funhaler may improve health of children - More research is recommended in the long-term efficacy of this treatment |
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What is a key conclusion of Chaney et al? |
Children can be encouraged to adhere to their medication with the use of 'fun'. |
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How does Chaney et al relate to the key theme? |
Shows how external influences favoured by the behaviourist perspective have a great impact on children's behaviour. |
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How does Chaney et al relate to Developmental psychology? |
Illustrates a way in which children learn and how parents can help their children to acquire desired behaviours. |
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How are the two Developmental studies similar? [4] |
- Both used young children as participants - Both basing research in behaviourist principles of learning - Both gained quantitative data for analysis - Both showed importance of external influences on children's behaviour |
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How are the two Developmental studies different? [7] |
- Bandura used observation and Chaney used self report to collect data - Bandura used controlled setting, Chaney used natural setting - The behaviourist theories they were investigating were different - Bandura was in America, Chaney in Australia - Bandura had a large sample, Chaney's was half the size - Equal gender split in Bandura's but not Chaney's - Chaney had to use participants with asthma, making it biased |
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What is the key theme of the Biological studies? |
Regions of the brain. |
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What are the two studies in the Biological area? |
Sperry and Casey et al. |
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What is Sperry's study about? |
Split brain study. |
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What is Casey et al's study about? |
Neural correlates of delay of gratification. |
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What year was Sperry's study? |
1968. |
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What year was Casey et al's study? |
2011. |
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Where is the primary motor cortex situated? |
In the frontal lobe and areas in the right hemisphere receive information from and are concerned with activities of the left side of the body and vice versa. |
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What is the background of Sperry's study? |
- Previous research using split-brain animals showed numerous behavioural effects - Sperry wanted to show each hemisphere possesses an independent stream of conscious awareness and has its own separate chain of memories that are inaccessible to the other |
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What research method did Sperry use? [2] |
- Quasi experiment because IV (having split brain or not) was not manipulated by researchers - DV was participant's ability to perform variety of visual and tactile tests |
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What was the sample of Sperry's study? |
11 patients who had undergone 'an extensive midline section of the commissures in an effort to control severe epileptic convulsion not controlled by medication'. |
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What was the procedure of Sperry's visual tests? [3] |
- Participant with one eye covered centred gaze on fixed point in the centre of an upright screen - Visual stimuli were arranged in a standard projector and were projected at 1/10 of a second or less - Everything projected onto left side of screen went to left visual field to right hemisphere and vice versa |
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What was the procedure of Sperry's tactile tests? [3] |
- Below screen there was gap so participants could reach objects but not see their hands - Objects placed in either their right/left or both hands - Information about objects placed in the left hand is processed by the right hemisphere and vice versa |
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What were the key findings of Sperry's visual tests? [3] |
- Information shown and responded to in one visual field could only be recognised again if shown to the same visual field - Information presented to RVF could be described in speech and writing with right hand - If same information is presented to LVF the participant could not describe or write it - If different figures presented to different visual fields, participants would draw object from LVF with left hand but say they saw what was in RVF |
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What were the key findings of Sperry's tactile tests? [4] |
- Objects placed in right hand could be described in speech or writing with right hand - If same object placed in left hand participants could only make random guesses - Objects felt by one hand only recognised again by same hand - when two objects placed in each hand then hidden, both hands selected their own object |
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What are some possible conclusions from Sperry's study? [3] |
- People with split brains have two separate visual inner worlds with its own train of visual images - Split brain patients have a lack of cross-integration where the second hemisphere does not know what the first hemisphere has been doing - Split-brain patients seem to have two independent streams of consciousness, each with its own memories, perceptions andimpulses |
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What is a key conclusion from Sperry's study? |
The corpus callosum helps different regions of the brain to communicate and improve our perception of the world but each hemisphere can function to produce its own perception and memories. |
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How does Sperry's study relate to the key theme? |
It sheds light on the function of the corpus callosum as a communication pathway between the two hemispheres. |
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How does Sperry's study relate to Biological psychology? |
It is investigating regions of the brain and lateralisation of brain function. |
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What does delay of gratification depend on? |
Cognitive control. Individuals use different cognitive strategies to delay gratification and there appear to be naturally existing differences in the spontaneous use of these strategies. |
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What is the background to Casey et al's study? |
Previous research showed performance on a delay-of-gratification task in childhood predicted the efficiency with which the same individuals performed a cognitive control task as adolescents and young adults. |
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What was the aim of Casey et al's study? |
To build on previous research to assess whether delay of gratification in childhood predicts impulse control abilities and sensitivity to alluring or social cues at the behavioural and neural level when participants were adults. |
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What was the research method used by Casey et al? [4] |
- Quasi experiment as IV (whether ppt was high or low delayer) could not be manipulated by the researcher - DV was performance on impulse control task in Experiment 1 and performance on the impulse control task and imaging results using fMRI - Study had, in parts, repeated measures design - Longitudinal study which followed some original participants from age of 4 into their 40s |
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What was the sample used by Casey et al? [9] |
- 526 4 year old pupils from Stanford's Bing Nursery School completed delay of gratification task in 60s - 155 completed self-control scales in their 20s, 135 in their 30s - 117 were contacted in relation to the study - 59 (23 m 36 f) agreed to participate in experiment 1 - Classed as high/low delayers based on their delay of gratification performance and their self control measures - Experiment 1 32 high delayers (12 m 20 f) and 27 low (11 m 16 f) - 27 (13 m 14 f) agreed to participate in experiment 2 - In experiment 2 there were 15 high delayers ( 5 m 10 f) and 11 low (7 m 4 f) - One man excluded due to poor performance so experiment 2 was based on performance of 26 ppts |
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Outline Experiment 1 in Casey et al. [8] |
- Consented to take part - Completed two version of go/no-go task - Cool version consisted of male and female stimuli, one as target stimulus and one as no-go stimulus - Screen appeared indicating target stimulus, instructed to respond as quickly and accurately as possible - Each face appeared for 500ms followed by 1s interval, 160 trials with 120 go 40 no-go - Task was a 2 (trial type:go, no-go) x 2 (stimulus sex: male, female) factorial design - Hot version identical to cool version but fearful and happy faces used as stimuli - Tasks completed using laptops sent to participants' homes |
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Outline experiment 2 in Casey et al. |
- fMRI used to examine neural correlates of delay of gratification - Predicted low delays would show diminished activity in right prefrontal cortex and amplified activity in ventral striatum - Participants complete hot version of Experiment 1 with different timing, number of trials and apparatus - Each stimulus presented for 500ms with jittered interval of 2-14.5 in duration, 48 trials 35 go 13 no-go -Task viewable by rear projection screen and Neuroscreen five button response recorded button responses and reaction times - 2 x 2 x 2 group linear mixed effects model conducted with factors of trial type (within subjects: go, no go) emotion (within subjects: happy, fearful) and group (between subjects: high delayer, low delayer) |
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What were the key findings of Experiment 1 in Casey et al? [5] |
- No effects of delay group on reaction time measure to correct 'go' trials - Participants performed with high level of accuracy during both cool (99.8% correct) and hot tasks (99.5%) - Low and high delayers performed with comparable accuracy on go trial, low delayers committed more false alarms on no-go trials - Both delayers performed comparably on 'cool' task but low delayers performed more poorly on hot tasks than high delayers - Individuals who had difficulty delaying gratification age 4 showed ore difficulty as adults suppressing responses to happy faces |
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What were the key findings of Experiment 2 in Casey et al? [7] |
- Two groups did not differ significantly in reaction times in correct 'go' trials - Accuracy rates for hot task uniformly high for go trials (mean 98.2% correct hits), more variable performance to no-go trials (12.4% false alarm rate) - Low delayers more false alarms than high delayers in hot tasks - Right inferior frontal gyrus was involved in accurately withholding a response - Low delayers had diminished recruitment of inferior frontal gyrus for correct no-go relative to go trials - Ventral striatum showed elevated activity to happy no-go trials for low delayers - Prefrontal cortex differentiated between no-go and go to greater extent in high delayers |
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What are some possible conclusions of Casey et al? [5] |
- Sensitivity to environmental hot cues plays a significant role in an individual's ability to suppress actions toward alluring cues - Resistance to temptation is a relatively stable individual difference - Capacity to resist varies by context, more temption choice for individual is more predictive individual differences in people's ability to regulate their behaviour - Behavioural correlates of delay ability are a function not only of cognitive control but also of the compelling nature of the stimuli that must be suppressed - Individuals who struggle delaying gratification age 4 have more difficulty as adults suppressing responses to positive social cues |
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What is a key conclusion of Casey et al? |
Inferior frontal gyrus is involved in the level of self-control shown when resistance to temptation is tested, suggesting that there are biological individual differences involved in the ability to display delayed gratification. |
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How does Casey et al relate to the key theme? |
It revealed that there are two regions of the brain that have an impact on our ability to resist temptation and defer gratification. |
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How does Casey et al relate to biological psychology? |
It is investigating whether there are specific regions of the brain that impact on our ability to resist the temptation of rewarding stimuli. |
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How are the two studies in the Biological area similar? [4] |
- Studies both included highly controlled laboratory experiments - Both demonstrate functions of specific regions of the brain - Both conducted ethically - Would be difficult to establish reliability of either |
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How are the two studies in the Biological area different? [3] |
- Casey studies brain of normal adults, Sperry's research conducted on abnormal subjects - Casey's was longitudinal, Sperry's was snapshot - Casey's able to benefit from new technology so could scientifically observe brain, Sperry didn't so just had to infer brain activity from what participants could (not) do |
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What is the key theme of the Individual Differences studies? |
Understanding disorders. |
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Which two studies are in the Individual Differences area? |
Freud and Baron-Cohen et al. |
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What was Freud studying? |
Little Hans. |
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What was Baron-Cohen studying? |
Autism in adults. |
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What year was Freud's study? |
1909. |
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What year was Baron-Cohen et al? |
1997. |
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What is Freud's theory of psychosexual development? [4- |
- Sequence of psychosexual stages determined by maturation and how the child is treated by others - Oral stage (0-1), anal stage (1-3), phallic stage (3-5/6), latency stage (5/6-puberty), genital stage (puberty-maturity) - Oedipus complex is for boys and Electra complex for girls |
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What is the background for Freud's study? |
- Little Hans referred to Freud by his father, a keen supporter of Freud's work - Freud decided to help Hans by interpreting his behaviour and telling him why he was thinking and behaving like he was - Freud used Hans to support his ideas on the origins of phobia, his theory of infantile sexuality and the Oedipus complex as well as the effectiveness of psychoanalytic therapy |
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What is the research method used by Freud? [2] |
- Longitudinal case study as documents developments in Hans' fears from age three-five - Data gathered by Hans' father observing and questioning Hans, he sent the information to Freud who interpreted it |
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What was the sample used by Freud? [2] |
- Little Hans (Herbert Graf) five years old at time - Evidence starting when Hans was thee used by Freud to support theory of psychosexual development and Oedipus complex |
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Outline the procedure of Freud's study. [7] |
- Just before age three Hans showed lively interest in his widdler and presence/absence of it in others - Had tendency to touch it, mother threatened him with Dr A cutting it off - When he was three had a baby sister who he resented and subconsciously wished his mother would drop her in the bath - Developed fear of being bitten by white horses; overheard father say to child "don't put your finger in the horse or it will bite you" and saw a horse pulling a carriage fall down - Fear generalised to carts and buses - Anxious his mother would go away and had giraffe fantasy, two plumber fantasies and a parenting fantasy - Having received help from his father and Freud his 'illness' and analysis came to an end |
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What are the key findings of Freud's study? |
- Fear of horses was subconscious fear of father, dark around mouth of horse and blinkers resembled glasses and moustache of father - Fearful of father and obsession with widdler due to Oedipus complex - Daydream of giraffes represented him trying to take his mother away from his father so he could have her to himself - Hans' fantasy of becoming a father linked to Oedipus complex - Fantasy about plumber interpreted as identifying with father and having passed through the Oedipus complex |
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What are the conclusions Freud had from his study? [5] |
Study of Hans provided evidence for: - Theory of psychosexual development/infant sexuality - Suggestion boys in phallic stage experience Oedipus complex - Nature of phobias and his theory that they are the product of unconscious anxiety displaced onto harmless external objects - Concept of unconscious determinism holds that people are not consciously aware of the causes of their behaviour - Use of psychoanalytic therapy by identifying unconscious causes of disturbance and bringing them into conscious so they can be discussed and resolved |
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What is the key conclusion of Freud's study? |
Children develop their sexuality and personality as they progress through the psychosexual stages and during this process they may develop phobias due to unconscious anxiety experienced in relation to their parental relationships. |
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How does Freud's study relate to the key theme? |
It tells us understanding disorders can be done through an understanding of unconscious conflicts. |
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How does Freud's study relate to Individual differences psychology? |
It is investigating a way in which people differ; namely by experiencing phobias. |
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What is the background to Baron-Cohen et al's study? [2] |
- There is no evidence to show that individuals with autism or aspergers have an intact theory of mind - This is because usual tests to assess theory of mind have a ceiling in developmental terms corresponding to a mental age of about six |
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What was the research method used by Baron-Cohen et al? [3] |
- Quasi experiment as IV (type of person likely to have TOM deficits) was naturally occurring and could not be manipulated by researchers - DV was performance, score out of 25, on the eyes task; measured by showing participants photographs of eye region of faces and asked them to choose between two mental states to best describe person in photo - Matched participants design as group of normal adults and tourettes age-matched with adults with autism/as |
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What was the sample used by Baron-Cohen? [3] |
- Group 1; 16 individuals with autism or aspergers (a 4, as 12) recruited through advert in National Autistic magazine (13 m, 3 f) - Group 2; 50 normal age-matched adults (25 m, 25 f) drawn from general population of Cambridge - Group 3; 10 adults with tourettes (8 m, 2 f) recruited from tertiary referral centre in London |
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What was the procedure used by Baron-Cohen et al? [7] |
- Eyes task, strange stories task and two control tasks (gender recognition and basic recognition task) presented in random order to all participants - Gender recognition task was identifying gender of eyes used in eyes task - GRT controlled for face perception, perceptual discrimination and social perception - Basic emotion recognition task involved judging photographs of whole faces displaying basic emotions - BER done to check whether difficulties in eyes tasks were due to difficulties with basic emotion recognition - SST used to validate results from eyes task - Participants tested individually in quiet room in own home, researchers clinic of laboratory at Cambridge University |
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What were the key findings of Baron-Cohen et al's study? [6] |
- Mean score for adults with ts (20.4) not very different from normal adults (20.3) but both were higher than those with autism (16.3) - Normal females better than normal males at eyes task (21.8 v 18.8) - Autism group made more errors on strange stories task than any other group - On gender and emotion tasks not difference between groups - With autism group no correlation between IQ and performance on eyes task - On SST nobody in ts group made errors but those with autism made many |
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What are some conclusions of Baron-Cohen et al's study? [2] |
- Provides evidence that adults with autism/as possess impaired theory of mind - As some of autism/as group have university degrees and were of normal intelligence, theory of mind deficits are independent of general intelligence |
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What is a key conclusion of Baron-Cohen et al? |
Individuals with autism do have an impaired theory of mind, regardless of intelligence level, which requires more sophisticated testing than previous research. |
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How does Baron-Cohen et al relate to the key theme? |
Suggests that adults with autism or aspergers experience impairment when it comes to theory of mind. |
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How does Baron-Cohen relate to Individual Differences psychology? |
It is investigating a way in which people differ; namely by being diagnosed as being on the autistic spectrum. |
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How are the two studies in the Individual Differences area similar? [3] |
- Both trying to understand a disorder - In both some or all of the data carried out in participants own home - Participants in both could be assumed to be within normal range in terms of their intelligence |
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How are the two studies in the Individual Differences area different? [10] |
- Baron-Cohen et al looked at autism not an anxiety disorder - Participants in Baron-Cohen et al's study had already been diagnosed - Freud had only 1 participant but Baron-Cohen et al had 76 across 3 groups - Baron-Cohen et al's approach was cognitive as oppose to psychodynamic - Baron-Cohen et al had a different research method; a controlled experiment with comparison groups as oppose to a case study - Freud's was longitudinal but Baron-Cohen et al's was snapshot - Baron-Cohen et al gained quantitative data Freud gathered qualitative data - Freud contained treatment of patient, Baron-Cohen et al's did not have this aspect - Baron-Cohen et al were studying adults, Freud studying a child - Freud's in 1909 in Austria, Baron-Cohen et al in 1997 in UK |
