Psychology Chapter 2

Front 1

Naturalistic observation

Back 1

the observation of the behavior of people or other animals in their natural environments

Front 2

Correlational study

Back 2

the examination of relations between two or more measurements of behavior or other characteristics of people or animals

Front 3

Experiment

Back 3

a study in which the researcher changes the value of an independent variable and observes whether this manipulation affects the value of a dependent variable. Only experiments can confirm the existence of causes-and-effect relations among variables

Front 4

Scientific method

Back 4

a set of rules that governs the collection and analysis of data gained through observational studies or experiments

Front 5

Replication

Back 5

repetition of an experiment or observational study to see whether previous results will be obtained

Front 6

Hypothesis

Back 6

a set of statements designed to explain a set of phenomena; more encompassing than a hypotheses

Front 7

Variable

Back 7

anything capable of assuming any of several values

Front 8

Manipulation

Back 8

setting the values of an independent variable in an experiment to see whether the value of another variable is affected

Front 9

Experimental group

Back 9

a group of participants in an experiment, the members of which are exposed to a particular value of the independent variable, which has been manipulated by the researcher

Front 10

Control group

Back 10

a comparison group used in an experiment, the members of which are exposed to the naturally occurring or zero value of the independent variable

Front 11

Independent variable

Back 11

the variable that is manipulated in an experiment as a means of determining cause-and-effect relations

Front 12

Dependent variable

Back 12

the variable that is measured in an experiment

Front 13

Nominal fallacy

Back 13

the false belief that one has explained the causes of a phenomenon by identifying and naming it; for example, believing that one has explained lazy behavior by attributing it to “laziness”

Front 14

Operational definition

Back 14

the definition of a variable in terms of the operations the researcher performs to measure or manipulate it

Front 15

Validity

Back 15

the degree to which the operational definition of a variable accurately relects the variable it is designed to measure or manipulate

Front 16

Confounding of variables

Back 16

inadvertent simultaneous manipulation of more than one variable. The results of an experiment involving confounded variables permit no valid conclusions about cause and effect

Front 17

Counterbalancing

Back 17

- a systematic variation of conditions in an experiment, such as the order of presentation of stimuli, so that different participants encounter them in different orders; prevents confounding of independent variables with time-dependent processes such as habituation or fatigue

Front 18

Reliability

Back 18

the repeatability of a measurement; the likelihood that if the meansurement was made again it would yield the same value

Front 19

Interrater reliability

Back 19

- the degree to which two or more independent observers agree in their ratings of another organism’s behavior

Front 20

Random assignment

Back 20

procedure in which each participant has an equally likely chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups of an experiment

Front 21

Placebo

Back 21

an inert substance that cannot be distinguished in appearance from a real medication; used as a control substance in a single-blind or double-blind experiment

Front 22

Single-blind study

Back 22

an experiment in which the researcher but not the participant knows the value of the independent variable

Front 23

Double-blind study

Back 23

an experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows the value of the independent variable

Front 24

Matching

Back 24

a systematic selection of participants in groups in an experiment or (more often) a correlation study to ensure that the mean values of important participant variables of the groups are similar

Front 25

Sample

Back 25

a selection of elements from a larger population—for example, a group of participants selected to participate in an experiment

Front 26

Generalization

Back 26

the conclusion that the results obtained from a sample apply also to the population from which the sample was taken

Front 27

Informed consent

Back 27

agreement to participate in an experiment after being informed about the nature of the research and any possible risks and benefits

Front 28

Confidentiality

Back 28

privacy of participants and nondisclosure of their participation in a research project

Front 29

Debriefing

Back 29

full disclosure to research participants of the nature and purpose of a research project after its completion

Front 30

Cross-cultural psychology

Back 30

a branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior

Front 31

Descriptive statistics

Back 31

mathematical procedures for organizing collections of data, such as determining the mean, the median, the range, the variance and the correlation coefficient

Front 32

Measure of central tendency

Back 32

a statistical measure used to characterize the value of items in a sample of numbers

Front 33

Mean

Back 33

a measure of central tendency; the sum of a group of values divided

Front 34

Median

Back 34

a measure of central tendency; the midpoint of a group of values arranged numerically

Front 35

Measure of variability

Back 35

a statistical measure used to characterize the dispersion of values of items in a sample of numbers

Front 36

Range

Back 36

the difference between the highest score and the lowest score of a sample

Front 37

Standard deviation

Back 37

- a statistic that expresses the variability of a measurement; square root of the squared deviations from the mean

Front 38

Scatterplot

Back 38

a graph of items that have two values; one value is plotted against the horizontal axis and the other against the vertical axis

Front 39

Correlation coefficient

Back 39

a measurement of the degree to which two variables are related

Front 40

Statistical significance

Back 40

the likelihood that an observed relation or difference between two variables really exists rather than is due to chance factors

Front 41

Inferential statistics

Back 41

mathematical procedures for determining whether relations or differences between samples are statistically significant