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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the scientific method? |
A data-gathering method that involves testing a hypothesis by means of careful measurement and controlled observation |
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What are the seven steps used in the scientific research method? |
1. Identify the research problem 2. Formulate a hypothesis 3. Design the method 4. Collect the data 5. Analyse the data 6. Interpret the results 7. Report the findings |
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What's involved in identifying the research problem? |
- Identifying the area in which to conduct the study. This includes deciding the population of interest - Reading previous research to see what conclusions have already been made - An aim needs to be developed |
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What is a hypothesis? |
A testable prediction of the relationship between two variables. It is an educated guess- and thus requires knowledge about past findings. It is written as a specific statement. |
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What is a variable? |
Any event, condition or characteristic that changes (varies) or can be made to change |
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Who are the participants of a study? |
The people or animals whose behaviour, characteristics or responses are investigated and measured as part of an experiment. Their responses generally form the data of the study. |
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What is the data from a study? |
The observed facts that constitute the results of an experiment. |
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What's involved in designing the method for a study? |
-Determining the population, sample, sampling method, allocation of participants and the following procedure - Choosing a research design (e.g. surveys, observational study, etc.) |
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What's involved in analysing the data from a study? |
- Involved objectively organising, summarising, and representing data in a coherent and logical manner. - Mean, median, mode, percentages, etc. - Descriptive statistics are used to summarise and organise data into visual representations. E.g. bar graphs, frequency tables |
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What is raw data? |
The actual data collected from a study, before they are sorted or analysed; raw data appear in the appendix. |
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What's involved in interpreting the results from a study? |
- Forming conclusions about what the data show, using inferential statistics - If the statistical calculation is favourable, the results are considered to be significant and a conclusion is written that supports the hypothesis |
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What is a conclusion? |
A decision or judgement about the meaningfulness of the results of a study. It states what the results mean for the sample only. |
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What is a generalisation? |
A judgement about whether results obtained from a sample are representative of the relevant population. A generalisation can only be made if the sample is representative of the population. |
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What are inferential statistics? |
Statistics that allow an experimenter to objectively make inferences and conclusions about the data; they are often used to interpret results of a study. They allow a researcher to make conclusions about whether the hypothesis was supported by the results. Moreover, they allow a researcher to determine if the conclusions can be generalised to the greater population. |
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What are descriptive statistics? |
Statistics used to describe, summarise, organise and analyse data so that it can be more easily interpreted and explained to others. They do not determine whether the results support the hypothesis (that is inferential statistics). |
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What is included in a formal report? |
- Background info used to formulate the hypothesis - Info about the participants (age, gender, etc.) - The procedure and materials used - Results, including data analysis and interpretation -Problems or limitations with the study -Conclusions made - References |
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What are the sections of a formal report? |
-Title (what the investigation is about)
-An abstract (brief summary of the report) 100 words - Introduction (background info, study's purpose, hypothesis) 200-600 words - Method (how it was conducted) 150-200 words - Results- 150-200 words - Discussion (explains and interprets results, supports or rejects hypothesis) 200-600 words - References - Appendix (for any extra materials (e.g. raw data, consent forms) are placed. They must be numbered and referred to in the body of the text) |
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What is the experimental research method? |
A scientific research method that uses participants in a formal trial to confirm (or not confirm) a hypothesis In an experiment, data is gathered under controlled conditions to test a hypothesis by exposing participants to a treatment and observing and measuring its effect |
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What is a model? |
A tool used by researchers to summarise or explain their research and what the research may mean. It is merely a theory about a relationship, which may be modified as new research is completed. |
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What is an operational variable? |
A variable defined in terms of the procedures used to observe and measure it. It is made to be physically measured and testable. E.g. the variable 'intelligence' could be operationalised to mean 'number of puzzled solved in an hour' |
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What is an independent variable? |
A condition that an experimenter systematically manipulates in order to gauge its effect on the dependent variable. - It is the suspected cause of difference in outcomes of the experiment - It is said to cause the change in the dependent variable |
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What is a dependent variable? |
The variable that is measured after exposure to the independent variable. It is used as a measure of the IV's effect. DV's "depend" on the effects of the IV. |
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What is an experimental hypothesis? |
A broad and general prediction about the direction of the relationship between variables in an experiment. ie. whether the variables increase or decrease in relation to one another. E.g. The consumption of alcohol will decrease driving ability |
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What is a research hypothesis? (or operational hypothesis) |
A hypothesis that operationalises the variables by precisely defining and describing how each variable is measured, and predicts the exact effect the IV is expected to have on the DV. It provides a testable prediction of the outcomes. |
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What is the population? |
The larger group of research interest from which a sample in a research study has been drawn. |
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What is a sample? |
The group of participants in a research study selected from, and representative of, a population of research interest. |
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Why are absolute terms, such as 'will be' or 'never', not typically used in a hypothesis? |
Because there is rarely a 100 percent chance of something happening. |
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What is an extraneous variable? |
In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV |
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What is a controlled variable? |
An extraneous variable whose influence has been eliminated from an experiment so that it cannot affect the results; it has been controlled |
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What is an uncontrolled variable? |
An extraneous variable whose influence has not been eliminated from an experiment because the experimenter was not aware of it |
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What is a confounding variable? |
An uncontrolled variable that has had an unwanted effect on the DV and might be confused with the effect of the IV |
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What is test standardisation? |
Establishing standards for administering a test and interpreting scores. |
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What does standardisation involve? |
-It involves all conditions of testing procedures are kept consistent to avoid invalid results -It involves finding norms, that can be described in terms of numbers that represent arithmetical averages (means) and distribution.This allows the results to be compared to a 'normal' result. |
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What are participant variables? |
Individual differences in the personal characteristics of research participants that, if not controlled, can confound the results of the experiment. E.g. religion, age, gender, mood, motivation, physical ability, etc. |
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What is the order effect? |
When prior knowledge of a task or situation influences a participant's performance, which in turn influences the results of the experiment; also known as the practice effect |
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What is counterbalancing? |
A method used to control the order effect, where for the first test condition, half the participants are exposed to the control condition and the other half are exposed to the experimental condition; this is then reversed in the second instance |
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What is the experimenter effect? |
Changes in participant's behaviour that are caused by unintentional influence of the experimenter rather than the IV. Experimenters run the risk of finding what they wish to find. |
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What is a self-fulfilling prophecy? |
A prediction that prompts people to act in a way that makes the prediction come true |
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What is a double-blind procedure? |
An experimental procedure where neither the experimenter nor the participant knows which experimental condition the participants have been allocated to. It's intended to eliminate the experimenter effect |
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What is a single-blind procedure? |
An experimental procedure where participants do not know which experimental condition they have been assigned to, but the experimenter does |
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What is a placebo? |
A fake treatment that produces no effect, such as a fake pill or injection. They work by altering people's expectations of their reactions. |
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What is the placebo effect? |
Changes in behaviour caused by the participant's belief that they have been exposed to a treatment that will affect them in some way. |
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What is the independent-groups design? |
An experimental design where participants are randomly allocated to either the experimental group or control group. It's the experimental design most frequently used in psychological research. It eliminates order effects |
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What is the matched participants design? |
An experimental design where participants are paired (matched) on the basis of similar characteristics that can influence the DV, with one of the pair being allocated to the experimental group and the other to the control group. |
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What is the repeated-measures design? |
An experimental design method where the same group of participants makes up both the experimental and control groups. |
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What is random sampling? |
A sampling technique ensuring that every member of the population of interest has an equal chance of being selected for the sample being used in a study. Used when sample needs to be representative of the population. Suited to homogenous populations. |
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What is stratified sampling? |
A sampling technique that ensures the sample contains the same proportions of participants that are found in the population. It involves dividing the population into distinct subsets (strata) that share at least one common characteristic of research interest, then randomly selecting a sample from each group, in the same proportions as the wider population. Suited to populations that are dissimilar. |
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What is convenience sampling? (or opportunity sampling) |
A sampling technique involving the selection of participants because they are readily available to the researcher; they are convenient. Results of a convenience sample may be biased, and cannot be generalised. |
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What is the experimental group? |
In a controlled experiment, the group of participants that are exposed to the independent variable |
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What is the control group? |
In a controlled experiment, the group of participants exposed to all conditions or variables except the independent variable. It provides a point of reference against which to compare the experimental group's scores. Not always present in an experiment. |
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What is random allocation? |
A procedure for assigning participants to either the experimental group or control group in an experiment, ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of being allocated to either group. The aim is to have the remaining groups as similar as possible in terms of personal characteristics of interest. |
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What is qualitative data? |
Data that describe the changes in the quality of a behaviour; often accounts of personal attitudes or experiences, or descriptions of feelings. |
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What is quantitative data? |
Data collected through systematic and controlled procedures and presented in numerical form. |
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What is a case study? |
An in-depth, detailed study of all aspects of a single participant, group or event, usually undertaken to gain insight into a particular psychological phenomenon. Non-experimental. Uncontrolled. Can't be repeated, unless circumstantially. |
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What are observational studies? |
A method of data collection that involves watching and recording the behaviour of other persons or animals within a specific environment and drawing conclusions based on the recorded observations. Non-experimental. They can describe, but can't explain behaviour. |
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What is the observer effect? |
Changes in the behaviour of a person being observed caused by their awareness of the presence of an observer. |
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What is the observer bias? |
Bias in results of observational study that occurs when an observer sees what they expect to see, or records only selected details of an observed behaviour. Can be due to the observer's expectations, past experience, motivations, etc. This can be overcome by combining the findings of more than one observer. |
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What is a self-report technique? |
A data-collection method in which individuals are asked to freely express their attitudes by answering questions. A form of subjective data (the info given cannot be applied to other individuals). |
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What is a questionnaire? |
A written set of standardised questions that can be administered face to face, by mail, by telephone or via the internet, and often take the form of a survey. |
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What is an interview? |
A form of qualitative data collection where individuals are asked face-to-face or voice-to-voice to comment on their attitude towards particular issues. Allows the assessment of tone of voice, facial expression, body language, etc. Interviewers can be biased and stereotype the interviewee. |
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What is the measure of central tendency? |
A measure of the tendency for a majority of scores to fall in the mid-range of possible values. These include the mean, median, and mode. |
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What is the mean of a data set? |
A measure of central tendency found by adding up all of the values and dividing the total by the number of values |
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What is the median of a data set? |
A measure of central tendency found by arranging scores from the highest to the lowest, and selecting the score that falls in the middle. |
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What is the mode of a data set? |
A measure of central tendency found by selecting the most frequently occurring score |
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What is variability? |
A single number that tells us the degree to which scores in a distribution are spread out or clustered together. |
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What is the range of a data set? |
The difference between the highest score and the lowest score in a distribution. A numerical value. |
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What is statistical significance? |
A number obtained from inferential statistics that provides an estimate of how often experimental results could have occurred by chance alone; expressed as a 'p-value' |
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What does a p<0.05 obtained from an experiment represent? |
That there was less than 5% probability that the experimental result occurred by chance. In other words, the results were probably due to the effects of the IV rather than chance. The results are statistically significant, and therefore the hypothesis is supported and the researcher can make an objective conclusion. |
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What are ethics? |
Moral principles and codes of behaviour. They ensure that the participant's welfare is made a higher importance than the success of the study. |
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What ethical values must an experimenter adhere to? (According to the NHMRC Act of 1992) |
Research merit- potential benefits from the research Integrity- professionalism in behaviour Respect- of participants, etc. Beneficence- benefits to society outweigh any risk of harm to participants Justice- No participant may be exploited |
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What are participants' rights? |
The individual rights of all participants that must be respected by the researcher, as outlined in ethical guidelines relating to psychological research. They ensure participants suffer no physical or psychological harm during, or as a result of the experiment. |
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What rights are participants of an experiment entitled to? |
Confidentiality, withdrawal rights, access to results, voluntary participation, informed consent, deception, debriefing |
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What is confidentiality? |
A participant's right to privacy in terms of access, storage and disposal of information related to a research study in which they participated. Written consent for disclosure can be obtained by the participant. |
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What are withdrawal rights? |
A participant's right to withdraw from a study of research at any time without experiencing any negative consequences. |
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What is voluntary participation? |
Participation whereby participants agree to take part in an experiment free from pressure or fear of negative consequences. |
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What is informed consent? |
Where a participant gives their written consent to participate in a study after being fully informed of the true nature and purpose of the experiment (and where appropriate), any foreseeable risks and their rights; this occurs before an experiment begins. |
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What is deception? |
When information about the true purpose of a study is not given to participants before a study begins |
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What is debriefing? |
Informing participants of the true purpose of an experiment once it has ended; correcting mistaken attitudes or beliefs; providing the opportunity to gain information about the study; providing information about services to help with distress that is a result of participation. |
