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46 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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3 Key Processes of Memory |
Encoding: getting information into memory.
Storage: retaining information over time.
Retrieval: taking information out of storage. |
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Levels of Processing Theory (Shallower to Deeper) |
- this theory proposes that deeper processing results in better recall of info.
Structural (shallow): emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus. Ex.) is the word written in capital letters?
Phonemic (intermediate): emphasizes what a word would sound like. Ex.) does the word rhyme with weight?
Semantic (deep): emphasizes the meaning of verbal input. Ex.) would the word fit in the sentence: "he met a _______ on the street"? |
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Mnemonics |
Memory devices that help learners recall larger pieces of information, mainly in the form of lists, steps, stages, parts, phases, etc.
In 1967 Gerald R. Miller had a study that proved mnemonics increased recall. |
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Enriched Encoding |
Elaboration: pre-existing knowledge.
Imagery: dual-coding theory.
Mnemonics: memory devices to increase recall. |
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The "Three-Box Model" (Storage) |
Sensory Memory: stores info. In its original form. Duration: fraction of a second.
Short-term Memory: can maintain unrehearsed info. Duration: 10-20 seconds. Capacity: about 7 chunks.
Long-term Memory: Unlimited capacity, unlimited duration. |
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Chunking |
Helps with memorizing.
Ex.) 651-999-9999 (chunk numbers in small groups). |
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Working Memory |
Phonological Loop: deals with spoken & written material. (Phone numbers)
Visuospatial Sketchpad: deals with visual & spatial info. Helps keep track of where we are in relation to other objects.
Central Executive: responsible for monitoring & coordination. Decided which info. Is attended to & which parts of the working memory to send that info to.
Buffer: a "backup storage" if you will, works with both long-term and working memory. |
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Long-term Memory |
Procedural Memory: responsible for knowing how to do things. Ex.) How to ride a bike.
Declarative Memory: involves "knowing that". Ex.) Knowing that London is the capital of England.
Episodic Memory: responsible for storying info. about events that we've experienced. Ex.) A memory of our 1st day of school.
Semantic Memory: responsible for storing information about the world. Ex.) London is the capital of England.
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Flashbulb Memory |
The sudden onset of a clear memory of an emotionally significant memory or event. Like turning on a light in your brain. |
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Retrieval: Cues & Context |
Memories can be jogged by retrieval cues (stimuli), reinstating the context of an event can also facilitate recall. |
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Schemas |
Organized clusters of knowledge about a particular event or object. |
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Reconstructive Nature of Memories |
Roediger & McDermott's Research: memories are not exact replicas, they're partially reconstructive.
Elizabeth Loftus' Research: on the Misinformation Effect, information learned after an event can alter one's memory of the event. |
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Source Monitoring |
The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.
Related Errors: explain why people sometimes "recall" something that was only verbally suggested to them & explains to them why they confuse their sources information. |
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Forgetting |
Ebbinghaus's Research: early studies suggest that people forget very rapidly, and the forgetting curves was very steep. Ex.) forgetting nonsense syllables.
Measuring Memory: forgetting can be measured by asking people to recall, recognize, or relearn information.
*recognition tends to yield higher estimates of retention then recall measures.
Theories of Forgetting:
-ineffective encoding (pseudo forgetting): usually due to a lack of attention. -decay theory: proposes that forgetting occurs spontaneously with the passing of time. -interference theory: proposes that people forget info. Because of competition from other material. 1.) proactive = interference occurs when old learning interferes with new info. 2.) retroactive = interference occurs when new learning interferes with old info.
Repressed Memory: memories such as childhood sexual abuse that people subconsciously forget. |
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H.M's Famous Case |
Research suggests that the hippocampus & the broader medial temporal lobe system okay a major role in memory. May be crucial to the consolidation of memories. |
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Consolidation |
Solidifying or strengthening. |
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Neural Circuits & Memory |
Richard Thompson's research suggest that memory traces may consist of localized neural circuits.
Neural Circuits: neurons organized into ensembles or "circuits" that process specific kinds of information. |
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Neural Circuits & Memory |
Richard Thompson's research suggest that memory traces may consist of localized neural circuits.
Neural Circuits: neurons organized into ensembles or "circuits" that process specific kinds of information. |
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Improving Memory |
Serial Position Effect: the tendency to remember the first few and the last few words in a list.
The tendency to recall earlier words is called the primary effect.
The tendency to recall later words is the recency effect.
Mnemonics: devices such as acrostics, acronyms, & rhymes to enhance memory.
The Method of Loci: loci being Latin for "places". Is a mnemonic device which uses visualization to organize & recall information. Ex.) faces, digits, lists of words. |
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Eyewitness Accounts |
Eyewitness memory is not nearly as reliable as we think.
Hindsight Bias: the tendency to reshape ones interpretation of the past to fit with known outcomes, often distorts memory.
People are often overconfident about their eyewitness recollections. |
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3 Stages of Prenatal Development |
Germinal Stage: occurs from conception until 2 weeks. When the zygote grows into a blastocyst & implants into the mothers uterine lining.
Embryonic Stage: lasts from the end of Stage #1 - two months after conception. In this stage all major organs form & the embryo becomes very fragile.
Fetal Stage: lasts two months after conception until birth. Sex organs form, fetus grows bones & muscles, & the brain rapidly increased in size, fat grows, and the respiratory & digestive systems begin to work independently. |
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Age of Viability |
24 weeks after fertilization. Survival outside the womb is possible. |
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Motor Development |
Cephalocaudal: occurring in the long axis of the body, head to tail.
Proximodistal: limb development before specific fine motor skills. |
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Developmental Norms |
Developmental norms for motor skills are only group averages.
Cultural Variations demonstrate the potential importance of environment & learning. |
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Attachment |
Behaviorist View: would say things like, remember when you're tempted to pet your child keep in mind that mother love is a dangerous instrument. Thinking affection would only spread disease.
Contact Comfort View: needed a mothers comfort for security especially during fear. |
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Harlow's Research |
Infants begin to show attachment around 6-8 months when separation anxiety surfaces. His work with monkeys reinforces the explanation of attatchment. |
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Harlow's Research |
Infants begin to show attachment around 6-8 months when separation anxiety surfaces. His work with monkeys reinforces the explanation of attatchment. |
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Bowbly's View |
He proposed an influential evolutionary theory that attachment relationships have survival value, infant to mother attachments fall into 3 categories. Secure, anxious-ambivalent, & avoidant. |
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Erik Erickson's Theory of Personality |
This theory assumes that individuals must progress through a series of specified stages in a particular order & that development is marked by major discontinuities. His theory proposes that individuals evolve through eight stages over their life span.
4 childhood stages determine the degree to which children exhibit trust, autonomy, initiative, & industriousness. |
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Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development |
Four Stages. Stage 1.) Sensorimotor Period: coordination of sensory input & motor responses, development of object permanence. Stage 2.) Preoperational Period: development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, egocentrism. Stage 3.) Concrete Operational Period: mental operations applied to concrete events, mastery of conversation, hierarchical classification. Stage 4.) Formal Operational Period: mental operations, apoed to abstract ideas; logical systematic thinking.
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Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development |
Four Stages. Stage 1.) Sensorimotor Period: coordination of sensory input & motor responses, development of object permanence. Stage 2.) Preoperational Period: development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, egocentrism. Stage 3.) Concrete Operational Period: mental operations applied to concrete events, mastery of conversation, hierarchical classification. Stage 4.) Formal Operational Period: mental operations, apoed to abstract ideas; logical systematic thinking.
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Object Permanence |
Objects continue to exist even when you cannot see them. |
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Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development |
Four Stages. Stage 1.) Sensorimotor Period: coordination of sensory input & motor responses, development of object permanence. Stage 2.) Preoperational Period: development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, egocentrism. Stage 3.) Concrete Operational Period: mental operations applied to concrete events, mastery of conversation, hierarchical classification. Stage 4.) Formal Operational Period: mental operations, apoed to abstract ideas; logical systematic thinking.
Criticisms: used confusing and abstract terms, overlooked cultural effects. |
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Object Permanence |
Objects continue to exist even when you cannot see them. |
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Conservation |
Logical thinking ability. |
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Centration |
Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation, problem or object. |
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Irreversibility |
When children falsely believe that actions cannot be reversed or undone. |
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Irreversibility |
When children falsely believe that actions cannot be reversed or undone. |
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Egocentrism |
Refers to a child's inability to see a situation from another persons POV. |
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Animism |
The view that non-human entities and inanimate objects posses a spiritual essence. |
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Animism |
The view that non-human entities and inanimate objects posses a spiritual essence. |
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Operations |
Or "rules" can only be applied to physical objects. |
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Hierarchy Classification |
A system of grouping things according to hierarchy, or levels & orders. |
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Abstract Thinking |
The ability to use concepts and make & understand generalizations. |
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Psychological Nativism |
The view that certain skills or abilities are native or hard wired into the brain. |
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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development |
Research Method: studied very young children & discovered children were faced with different moral issues.
Level 1: Preconventional Morality includes obedience, punishment, & individualism/exchange.
Level 2: Conventional Morality included society & societal roles in judging the morality of an action.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality concerned with the universal principles caused by the action done.
Criticism: too culture specific. |
