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39 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
How do psychologists new knowledge?
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they use the scientific method to test their ideas empirically
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What is empirical investigation?
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an approach to research that relies on sensory experience & observation as research data
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What is the scientific method?
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a 5-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases & subjective judgements
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What are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
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1. developing a hypothesis
2. performing a controlled test 3. gathering objective data 4. analyzing the results 5. publishing, criticizing, & replication the results |
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What is the first step of the scientific method?
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Developing a hypothesis
- hypothesis: a statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study - operational definitions: exact procedures used in establishing experimental conditions & measurement of results |
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What is the second step of the scientific method?
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Performing a controlled test
- independent variable: the variable manipulated by the experimenter - random presentation: using chance alone to determine the order in which the stimulus is presented |
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What is the third step of the scientific method?
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Gathering objective data
- data: information gathered by researcher and used to test a hypothesis - dependent variable: the measured outcome of a study; the responses of participants in a study |
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What is the fourth step of the scientific method?
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Analyzing the results
- based on statistical analyses of results, the hypothesis is accepted or rejected |
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What is the fifth step of the scientific method?
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Publishing, criticizing, & replication the results
- researchers must find out whether their work can withstand the scrutiny of the scientific community |
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Types of Psychological Research: What is done in experiments?
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the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the conditions
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Types of Psychological Research: What is included in non-experimental methods? (7)
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- correlational studies (no cause/effect)
- surveys (self-report data) - naturalistic observation (observing/studying people in their natural environment) - longitudinal studies (same subjects, long study, precise data) - cross-sectional studies (dividing up subjects, shorter study, not as precise) - cohort-sequential studies (mini longitudinal studies) - case-studies (study info. on one individual) |
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What are the sources of bias? (2)
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- personal bias
- expectancy bias (self-fulfilling prophecy) |
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How can bias affect research?
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can affect the way an experimenter designs a study, collects data, or interprets results
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How can one control bias?
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by using a double-blind study (where researchers and participants do not know the details)
- researchers must also attempt to control confounding variables |
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What is the APA?
What is the IRB? |
APA - American Psychiatric Association
IRB - Institutional Review Board |
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What is deception?
What is debriefing? What is animal research? |
Deception: hiding the truth
Debriefing: letter explaining what they are studying --> signed AFTER experiment Animal research: harm if benefits (of knowledge) outweigh the cost; no other way to do it |
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When is the scientific method not appropriate to use?
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not appropriate for answering questions that cannot be put to an objective, empirical test
- ethics - morality - religious beliefs - preferences |
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How do researchers make sense of the data and for what purposes?
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Researchers use STATISTICS for:
- descriptively to characterize measurements made on groups or individuals - inferentially to judge whether these measurements are the result of chance |
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How is the data organized?
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First: results must be arranged in a summary chart known as a frequence distribution
Next: convert the data into a bar graph called a histogram |
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What measures central tendency?
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- the mean (M=EX / N)
- the median - the mode |
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Describe measures of variability.
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useful to know how well the average represents the distribution as a whole
[describes the "spread-outcomes" of scores]: - the range - the standard deviation (avg. distance from the mean) - the normal distribution (where the majority lies on a graph - the hump) |
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What is the Z score formula?
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X - X (w/ line over second x) divided by SD
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What does a normal distribution look like and where does the peak/avg. fall?
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hump/peak/avg. falls on 68%
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What does a negative skew look like?
What does a positive skew look like? |
Neg. skew: hump is towards the end (on x-axis)
Pos. skew: hump is toward the beginning (on x-axis) |
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What is correlation?
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a relationship between 2 variables, in which changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the other variable
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What is correlation coefficient?
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a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between 2 variables
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What is inferential statistics?
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used to assess whether the results of a study are reliable or whether they might be simply the result of change
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What types of sampling are there?
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- random sample, unbiased
- representative sample |
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What is statistically significant?
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p < .05
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What is an inference?
What is an observation? |
inference: when something is implied
observation: when something is observed for an exact number of times |
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What are the directions of correlations?
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both arrows up: positive
both arrows down: negative one arrow up & one arrow down: negative |
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What are advantages of the scientific approach?
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- its clarity in communication
- its relative intolerance of error |
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What are the 3 main types of variables?
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IV: variable manipulated to see its impact on another variable
DV: variable tested (If IV, then DV) Extraneous/Confounding variable: variables other than the independent variable that influences the results |
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What is the experimental group?
What is the control group? |
Exp. Group: subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the IV
Control Group: similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment |
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Describe random assignment.
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Random assignment of subjects occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of experimental research?
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- Permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables
- Not usable for a specific problem - Many experiments tend to be artificial |
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of descriptive/correlational research?
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- Allow psychologists to explore issues that might not be open to experimental investigation
- These research methods cannot demonstrate cause-effect relationships |
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What is the placebo effect?
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pill that looks identical to experimental pill but contains no drug (sugar pill)
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What is population?
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all members of the group to which the study applies
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