Psychology Basic Terms

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empiricism

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the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment

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Wilhelm Wundt

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psychology's 1st experiment, 1st laboratory, structuralism and functionalism

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structuralism

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an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

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Edward Bradford Tichener

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student of Wundt's, introspection=unreliable

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William James

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functionalism, down-to-earth emotions

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functionalism

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a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes functione- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

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Mary Calkins

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James' student, qualified for Harvard Ph.D but denied, became APA's 1st female president

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Margaret Floy Washburn

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first (recieved) female psychology Ph.D, became APA president, The Animal Mind

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psychology

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the science of behavior (anything the organism does, observable and recordable) and mental processes (internal subjective beliefs we infer from behavior)

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nature-nurture issue

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the long standing controversy over the relative contribution that genes and experience make to the developement of psychological traits and behaviors

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neuroscience

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how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

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evolutionary

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how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one's genes

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behavior genetics

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how much our genes and our environment influences our individual differences

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psychodynamic

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how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

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behavioral

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how we learn observable responses

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cognitive

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how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

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social cultural

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how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

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basic research

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pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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applied research

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scientific study that ams to solve practical problems

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clinical psychologists

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a branch of psychology that studes, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

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psychiatrists/psychiatry

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a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it

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critical thinking

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thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, rather it examines assumptions discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

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theory

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an explanation using an integrated set of principle that organizes and predicts observations

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hypothesis

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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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survey

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a technique for ascetaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

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population

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all the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn for a study

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random sample

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a sample that fairly represens a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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correlation coefficient

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a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

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illusory correlation

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the perception of a relationship where none exists

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experiment

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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processs (the dependent variable) by random assignment or paticipants the experiment controls other relevant factors

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placebo

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an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent

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double-blind procedure

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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants nad staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have recieved the treatment or a placebo ((used in drug-evaluation studies))

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placebo effect

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any effect on behavior caused by a placebo

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experimental condition

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the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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control condition

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the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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random assignment

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assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups

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independent variable

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the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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dependent variable

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the experimental factor-in psychology, the behavior or mental process-that is being measured, the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

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descriptive

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to observe and record behavior

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correlational

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to detect naturally occuring relationships; to asses how well one variable predicts another ((cause-and-effect))

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experimental

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to explore cause-and-effect ((manipulate one or more factors-independent variable))

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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SQ3R

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a study method incorporating five steps; survey, question, read, rehearse, and review

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons, when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel the synapse and bid to receptor sites on the recieving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse ((either excite or inhibit))

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dopamine

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influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

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serotonin

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affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

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norepinephrine

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helps control alertness and arousal

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endorphins

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"morphine within" natural opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

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somatic nervous system

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the division of the (FNS) that controls the body's skeletal muscles

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autonomic nervous system

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the part of the (PNS) that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs

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sympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressfull situations

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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reflex

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a simple, autonomic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

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brainstem

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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for autonomic survival functions

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medulla

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the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

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thalamus

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the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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amygdala

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two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

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hypothalamus

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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, etc.), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

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frontal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

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parietal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex

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occipital lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

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left hemisphere

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makes quick literal interpretations of languages, speaking or calculating

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right hemisphere

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perceptual tasks, such as bloodflow, glucose consumption, and brain waves.

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endocrine system

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the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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hippocampus

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a structure in the limbic system linked to memory

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chromosomes

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threadlike sturctures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

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DNA

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a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

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genes

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the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

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natural selection

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the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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mutation

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a random error in gene replication that leads to a genetic change

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evolutionary psychology

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the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

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gender

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the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

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behavior genetics

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the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

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environment

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every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

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identical twins

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twin who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

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fraternal twins

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twins who develop from separate eggs, they are genetically no close than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

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temperament

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a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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interaction

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the effect of one factor (such as environment) depend on another factor (such as heredity)

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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norm

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an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior

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personal space

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the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

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X chromosome

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the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have 2, males have 1. one from each parents produces a female child

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Y chromosome

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the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X one, from the mother, it produces a male child

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testosterone

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the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

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role

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a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

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gender role

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a set of expected behaviors for males and for females

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gender identity

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one's sense of being male or female

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gender-typing

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the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

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social learning theory

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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

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gender schema theory

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the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

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maturation

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biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

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schema

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a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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assimilation

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interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

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accommodation

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adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

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cognition

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all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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sensorimotor stage

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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object permanence

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the awareness that things continue to exist even when not percieved

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preoperational stage

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

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conservation

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the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

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egocentrism

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's inability to take another's point of view

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theory of mind

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people's ideas about their own and others' mental states-about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behaviors these might predict

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concrete operational stage

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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

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formal operational stage

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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

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stranger anxiety

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the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 6 months of age

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attachment

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an emotional tie with another person; shwon in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on seperation

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critical period

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an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

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imprinting

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the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

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basic trust

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according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

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adolescence

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the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

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puberty

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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

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primary sex characteristics

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the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

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secondary sex characteristics

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nonreproductie sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

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menarche

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the first menstrual period

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identity

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one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

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intimacy

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in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

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menopause

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the time of natural cessation of menstuation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

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cross-sectional study

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a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

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longitudinal study

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research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

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crystallized intelligence

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one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

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fluid intelligence

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one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

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social clock

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the culturally preferred timing of social events such as mariage, parenthood, and retirement

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consciousness

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our awareness of ourselves and our environment

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selective attention

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the focusing of consious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect

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circadian rhythm

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the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24- hour cycle

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REM sleep

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rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active

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alpha waves

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the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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sleep

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periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

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halucination

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false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

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delta waves

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the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

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insomnia

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recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

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narcolepsy

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a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer my lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

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sleep apnea

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a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings

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night terrors

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a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep, within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

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dream

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a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it

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manifest content

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according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent content)

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latent content

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according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve

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REM rebound

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the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

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hynosis

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a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that cerain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

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posthypnotic amnesia

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supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion

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posthypnotic suggestion

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a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

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dissociation

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a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

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hidden observer

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Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

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psychoactive drug

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a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

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tolerance

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the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effects

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withdrawal

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the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

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physical dependence

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a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

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psychological dependence

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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

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depressants

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drugs (such as alcohol, barbituates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

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barbituates

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drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

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opiates

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opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

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stimulants

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drugs (such as caffiene, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines and cocaine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

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amphetamines

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drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

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ecstasy

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a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

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hallucinogens

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psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

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LSD

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a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid

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near-death experience

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an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similiar to drug-induced hallucinations

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THC

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the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

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motivation

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a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

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instinct

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a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

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drive-reduction theory

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the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

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homeostasis

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a tendency to maintain a balalnced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

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incentive

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a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

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hierarchy of needs

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Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological neds become active

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glucose

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the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues, when its level is low, we feel hunger

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set point

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the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

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basal metabolic rate

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the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

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sexual response cycle

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the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson-excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

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refractory period

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a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

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sexual disorder

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a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

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estrogen

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a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual reproductivity

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testosterone

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the most important of the male sex hormonse. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

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sexual orientation

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an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

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achievement motivation

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a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

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psychological disorder

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a "harmful dysfunction" in which behavior is judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, and unjustifiable

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medical model

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the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured. When applied to psychological disorders, the medical model assumes that these "mental" illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital

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bio-psycho-social perspective

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a contemporary perspective which assumes that biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders

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DSM-IV

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the APA's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders, presently distributed in an updated "test revision"

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anxiety disorder

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psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

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generalized anxiety disorder

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an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

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panic disorder

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an anxiety disorder marked by a minutes-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations

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phobia

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an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation

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obsessive-compulsive disorder

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an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)

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dissociative disorders

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disorders in which conscious awareness be omes seperated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

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dissociative identity disorder

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a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder

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personality disorders

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psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

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antisocial personality disorder

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a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) eshibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist

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mood disorders

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psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. (major depressive disorder, manic episode, and bipolar disorder)

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major depressive disorder

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a mood disorder in which a person, for no apparent reason, experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities

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manic episode

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a mood disorder marked by a hyperactve, wildly optimistic state

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bipolar disorder

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a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hoplessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania ((formerly called manic-depressive disorder))

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schizophrenia

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a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

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delusions

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false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

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emotion

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a response to the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

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James-Lange theory

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the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

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Cannon-Bard theory

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the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

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two-factor theory

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Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

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catharsis

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emotional release, maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

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feel-good, do-good phenomenon

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people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

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subjective well-being

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self-percieved happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being to evaluate people's quality of life

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adaptation-level phenomenon

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our tendency to form judgements (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a "neutral" level defined by our prior experience

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relative deprivation

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the perception that one is worse of relative to those with whom one compares oneself

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stress

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the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

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general adaptation syndrome

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(GAS) Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages-alarm, resistance, exhaustion

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health psychology

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a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

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coronary heart disease

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the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

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Type A

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Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

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psychophysiological illness

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literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

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lymphocytes

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the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and, among other duties, attach caner cells, viruses, and foreign substances

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Type B

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Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

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aerobic exercise

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sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety

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biofeedback

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a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension