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47 Cards in this Set
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- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Multi store model of memory |
-atkinson and Shiffron -flow of information through information processing system, divided into a series of stages. -made up of sensory register, short term memory and long term memory. -capacity, encoding and duration. |
Unitary stores |
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The sensory register |
-takes information from the environment from the senses, lasts a few seconds. -made up of different stores for different senses; -iconic store (visual), choice store (auditory) and haptic store (tactile) |
-environmental -types of senses |
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Sperling |
-study of sensory register-asked pps to recall entire grid; most could only remember about 4 items. -when recalling whole grid; 40%-when recalling one row; 75%-Shows that information decays rapidly in the SR, showing it has a limited duration. |
-Grid experiment -Grid experiment-duration in the SR -Grid experiment-duration in the SR -Grid experiment-duration in the SR -Grid experiment-duration in the SR -duration in the SR |
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Conrad |
-investigated encoding in short term memory -showed participants a random sequence of 6 consenants, projected them in a rapid sequence on screen. -letter were either acoustically similar or dissimilar. -participants were asked to immediately recall the letters in the correct order. -took part in both conditions (repeated measures). -found acoustically similar letters more difficult to remember, showed that we encode acoustically in our short term memory. |
Acoustically similar experiment |
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Evaluation of sperling |
-lab experiment: artificial setting, low ecological realism and low mundane realism
+high control- replicable, reliable, less extraneous variables effect. |
Lab experiment |
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Miller |
-short term memory -capacity -pps given series of digits and asked to immediately recall them in order. -list got progressively longer. -majority of pps could recall between 5-9 digits (7+/- 2 magic number) -more information can be held by chunking information |
Capacity of short term memory, magic number |
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Long term memory |
-long term memory is argued to encode semantically, last a lifetime and also have an unlimited capacity. |
Capacity, duration, encoding. |
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Bahrick et al |
-tested duration of LTM -17-74 year old pps -got pps to recall their class mates names in one of four ways; photo recognition, name recognition, name and photo matching and free recall of classmates names. -90% name and face recognition after 34 years -classmates are rarely forgotten-people have very long term memories. |
Class photo |
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Peterson and Peterson |
-duration of short term memory -24 university students asked to remember trigrams (e.g. CJT) -given distraction task of counting backwards in 3. -recall was tested after various times. -90% of trigrams recalled after 3 seconds -2% of trigrams were recalled after 18 seconds |
Trigrams experiment. Duration of stm |
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Baddeley |
-tested encoding in the long term memory - pps allocated into 4 groups; acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar. -given 12 sets of 5 words from their list. -After they had to recall the words in order. -either after a delay or immediately. -less recall after delay when words were semantically similar. -less recall immediately when words were acoustically similar. -showed that STM encodes acoustically. -LTM encodes semantically. |
Encoding- semantically/acoustically. |
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Types of long term memory |
-tucking suggests there are different types of LTM -procedural memory; knowing how to do things -declaritive memory; knowing specific information. -declaritive memory consists of semantic and episodic memory. -Semantic; memory for facts and general knowledge. -episodic; memory for events.
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Procedural. Declarative- semantic, episodic. |
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Support for types of LTM |
+ case study supports (HM and Clive Wearing) found that they had problems recalling episodic memory but not semantic or procedural. +neoroimaging support that shows left hemisphere of the prefrontal cortex was involved with semantic memory whilst the right side was involved with episodic memories. |
Clive Wearing and HM. Pre frontal correct neuroimaging. |
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Evaluation of multi-store model (Shiffron and Atkinson) |
-oversimplified both LTM and STM as unitary stores- die an consider types. -Shallice and Warrington; studied patient with amnesia (KF) remembered more when reading to himself than when being read to. -clive wearing and HM case studies show they can both only use procedural and semantic memory. -over-emphasises rehearsal; some things aren't rehearsed but still remembered. -doesn't consider types of rehearsal and levels of processing (deep/shallow) Craik and Lockhart suggest enduring memories are made by the processing which is done. -lab studdies:artificial, low mundane realism and ecological validity. +supporting evidence; lab and case studdies-scientific and controlled. +has been very influential in our understanding of memory. |
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Working memory model |
-produced by Baddeley and Hitch. -works like a business; central executive (acts like a manager- controls setting goals for tasks, controlling operations etc) -slave systems; phonological loop and visuospatial sketches follow orders of the Central executive. Newly introduced episodic buffer. |
The apprentice analogy |
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Phonological loop (working memory) |
-slave system -can only focus on one thing -limited capacity -deals with auditory information and word order. -Baddeley further divided this into two groups; . Phonological store (primary acoustic store); also known as the in me ear- holds information about speech, e.g words. . Articulatory process (inner voice)-linked to speech production, used to rehearse (silently repeated) verbal information from the phonological store. |
Made up of two parts: phonological store and anticipatory process. |
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Visuo-spatial sketchpad (working memory model) |
- visual and/or spatial information stored here (inner eye) -visual; what things look like. -spatial; relationships between things -limited capacity -although Logie suggested a subdivision; . visuo-cache; store for visual information (form and colour) . Inner scribe; for spatial relations. |
Logie's subdivisions; Visuo-cache and inner scribe. |
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Episodic buffer (working memory model) |
-slave system -introduced by Baddeley in 2000 after realising the model needed a more general store. -extra storage system with limited capacity. -integrates information from all areas. |
Baddeley (2000). Extra store. |
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Hitch and Baddeley experiment (working memory model) |
-true/false with digits or with 'the' -pps asked to do dual tasks of repeating a list of numbers or 'the' whilst doing a verbal reasoning task (true/false) -they could complete both tasks showing that the tasks use different parts of the working memory. |
True/false with digits/the |
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Baddeley et al studies (working memory model) |
-made pps track lazer Pointe whilst completing a visual task of visualising a block capital letter-could not complet both tasks at once. -however could track lazer whilst performing a verbal reasoning task. -shows that slave systems can only complete one task at a time. -also found that short words are recalled better than longer words. |
Lazer pointer |
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Braver et al studies (working memory model) |
-gave pps tasks which involved the Central executive whilst they where having a brains scan. - They found a greater activity in the prefrontal cortex- as task became harder the activity in the area increased. -suggests that demands of the Central executive increase with the difficulty I the tasks. |
Brain scan-prefrontal cortex. |
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Support for the working memory model |
+more plausible as it explains atm in terms of temporary storage and active +Dominant approach to memory +unlike MSM, WMM attempts to explain how memory functions. +Baddeley et al; found the phonological loop was important for reading-many children with dyslexia did not have a functioning phonological loop. +PET scans; different parts of brain activated when doing different tasks (Braver et al) +Phonological loop is strongly associated with the evolution of human vocal language.
Visuo-spatial sketchpad evaluation; +as well as showing the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad. To be located in different brain areas, PET scans also show brain activity in the left hemisphere with visual tasks and activity in the right for spatial information
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Challenges/limitations of the working memory model |
-Although dual task technique has low ecological validity and mundane realism (visuo-spatial sketchpad) -doesn't explain fully how information transfers. -little is known about the Central executive-vagueness means it can be used to explain anything. -circular argument; if two tasks can be done then th eye not conflicting but if they can't then tht don't exceed the available resources. -central executive is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store (like PL and VSS) |
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Retroactive interferance |
When new memory interferes with a older one (found by pilzecker and Muller) |
Retro (past)- it interferes with the past |
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Proactive interference |
when older information interferes with new informatiom |
Pro (future/forward)- interferes with future. |
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Muller and pilzecker study (retroactive interference) |
-pps given a list of nonsense syllables to learn in 6 minutes -after retention interval the pps were asked to recall the list. -performance was worse when pps were given a task in between initial learning and recall. (Asked to describe 3 landscape paintings) -the later task interfered with the previous one |
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Ceraso study (retroactive interference) |
-suggested that there was two possible reasons for retroactive interference; . No loss of information, poor recall is due to accessing the wrong information. . Competition of response theory; no loss of information, new learning actually replaces previous learning. |
Competition of response, new learning replaces old. |
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Keppel and underwood(Pro-active interference) |
Keppel and underwood; -pps required to recall trigrams after varying intervals, during which they counted backwards from 3. -found little or no forgetting of trigrams remembered at the start of procedure-these entered long term memory and interfered with memory of later consenants. |
Remembering Trigrams with an interval task. |
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Mcgeoch and McDonald (effects of similarities) |
-studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between two sets of materials. -pps had to learn a list of 10 words untill they could be remembered with 100% accuracy. -then they learned a new list - there was 6 different types of groups. -findings; when ppsthen recalled the original list of words their performance depended on the nature of the second list. The most similar material (e.g synonyms) produced the worst recall. This suggests that interference is strongest when materials are similar. |
Different groups of words. First list then a second list. |
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Cue dependant forgetting |
-occurs when information is still in the long term memory but can't be accessed. -cue dependant forgetting sees recall as dependant upon retrieval cues. -Tulving; explained this as the encoding-specific principle, where recall is hindered if the context of recall is different to that at coding. The fewer the amount of items associated with with a memory the more effective the cue is.. -two main types of cue dependant forgetring: context dependant and state dependant. |
Cues for retriaval, Tulving- encoding-specific principle. |
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Context dependant failure |
-occurs with external retrieval cues, with forgetting occurring when the external environment is different at recall from how it was at coding. |
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Godden and Baddeley (context-dependant failure) |
Tested people learning and recalling in for groups. -learn on land, recalling land -learn on land, recall under water. -learn under water, recall under water. -learn under water, recall on land. Results showed that they recalled better when being in the same environment which they learnt the information. |
Sea divers experiment. |
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State dependant failure |
-occurs with internal retrieval cues, with forgetting occurring when an individual's internal environment is dissimilar at recall to when the information was coded-e.g trying to recall information when sober which was learnt when drunk. |
Internal cues |
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Goodwin et al (state dependant failure) |
-male volunteers made to remember a list of words when they were either drunk or sober, more likely to recall information when in the same condition. |
Drunk/sober study |
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Darley et al (state dependant failure) |
-found that pps who hid money while high on marijuana were less able to recall where the money was hidden when they were not high than when they were high again. |
High on marijuana |
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Eye witness testimony; Bartlett (reconstuted memory) |
-Bartlett says that reconstructed memory is putting the pieces of information from memory together, but often in the wrong order, with bits missing or added -this can be a problem when it comes to the law as memories can be reconstructive inacurately. |
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Eye witness testimony; Loftus and Palmer |
-45 pps (students) put into 5 groups of 9 and shown A video of a car accident, afterwards each group was asked a different question ' What speed were the car's going at when they hit/smashed/bumped into/collided with each other?' -found that there was a 9mph difference between 'smashed and 'contacted' suggesting leading questions effect the accuracy of eye witness testimony. |
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Eye witness testimony; lotus and Palmer (study two) |
-sampled 150 student ops -pps were put into 3 groups of 50 and shown A video of a car accident. Afterwards the groups where asked different questions. -a week later they were asked back to answer if they saw broken glass. Pps recalled more glass for 'smashed' suggesting that leading questions can effect the memory. |
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Eye witness testimony; Weapons effect (loftus) |
-pps were left in a waiting room outside whilst waiting for the 'real' study to start, one man left with grease iver his hands holding a pen and another left with a blood stained knife. -49% identified the may with the pen but only 33% could identify the man with the bloodstained knife. -suggests that the weapon can effect recall. |
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Eye witness testimony; Christianson and Hubinette (anxiety) |
-110 witnesses of 22 real life bank robberies were interviewed sometime after the robberies -some of the witnesses had been onlookers or customers in the bank, and others were bank employees who had been directly threatened. - the findings where that the victim's where surprisingly accurate in their recall (the accuracy was still evident 15 months later) -this suggests that the victim's accuracy was not effected greatly by distress or the weapon. |
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Eye witness testimony; Yerkes-dodson effect |
The idea that human performance at any task are effected by arousal/excitement. |
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Eye witness testimony; improving accuracy, Geiselmann et al |
-lead to geiselman et el developing the cognitive interview tehnique |
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Eye witness testimony; improving accuracy, Loftus, Fisher |
Loftus research has had a positive impact on the legal system, her work on leasing questions prompted Fisher to evaluate the style of questioning used by police over a four month period. |
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Eye witness testimony; cognitive interview |
1-context reinstatement; recall and reinstate context/scene of event (e.g what witness was feeling, the proceeding events) 2-report everything, report every detail even if it seems trivial 3-recall from changed persepctive; describe episode as it would have been seen from different viewpoints. 4-recall in reverse order; repeat they episode in several different ways (temporal orders) |
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Eye witness testimony; improving accuracy, Fisher (enhanced cognitive interview) |
-fisher reviewed Geiselmans cognitive interview technique and suggested that the interviewer should not distract the witness and should not inteupt them. Interviewers should also adapt their language to suit them. This is known as enhanced cognitive interview. |
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Eye witness testimony; improving accuracy, Geiselman's study |
-analysed and compared statements produced by witnesses in cognitive interview and witnesses in standard police interviews. -found that the average number of correct results for cognitive interviews were much higher (approx 41%) compared to approx 29% for standard police interviews. |
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Eye witness testimony; post-event discussion |
When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event dscussion) their eye witnes testimonies may become contaminated as they could combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memory. |
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Eye witness testimony; post-event discussion, Gabbert and colleagues. |
-studied pps in pairs -each pps watched a video of the same crime but from different angles. This meant that pps could see events from others perspectives. -found that 71% of pps mistakenly recalled aspects from others perspectives compare to 0% of the controlled group |
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