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50 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology Defined
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- discipline or field of study
- concerned with behavior and mental processes - effects of physical state, mental state, and external environment |
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Psychology is Science
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- based on research and empirical evidence
- makes specific predictions - not just common sense |
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History of Psychology
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- roots in philosophy
- sought to describe, predict, understand, and modify behavior - based on individual observations - Hippocrates - phrenology - Joseph Gall - bumps on the head directly linked to specific areas of the brain that accounted for personality traits - illusory correlation |
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Wilhelm Wundt
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- founder of psychology
- established first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany - promoted trained introspection |
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Functionalism
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- William James
- inspired by Charles Darwin - how do behaviors help a person or animal adapt to the environment |
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Psychoanalysis
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- Sigmund Freud
- unconscious motives and conflicts - beginnings of clinical psychology |
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Learning/Conditioning
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Ivan Pavlov: classical condition - reactions to environment
- John B. Watson: conditioned fear - behavior shaped by punishment - Edward Thorndike/B.F. Skinner: operant conditioning, radical behaviorism - used Watson’s ideas, positive |
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biological perspective
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focuses on how bodily events affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts; neurons, hormones, brain chemistry; evolutionary psychology
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learning perspective
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focuses on how the environment and experience affect behavior; behaviorism, social cognitive learning theories
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cognitive perspective
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focuses on mental processes; reasoning, memory, language; one important contribution is evidence that thoughts and interpretations of events affect feelings and responses
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sociocultural perspective
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(focuses on social and cultural forces outside the individual; social psychology = rules, roles, groups, and relationships; cultural psychology = norms, values, and expectations
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psychodynamic perspective
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focuses on unconscious dynamics within the individual; unconscious thoughts, dreams, conflicts
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types of research
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- biological: explore the links between the brain, body, and behavior
- developmental: study changes from birth to death - cognitive: study perception, thinking, language, memory, etc. - personality: investigate our persistent traits - social: explore how we view and interact with others |
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applied psychology uses
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- clinical: study, assess, and treat people with psychological disorders
- counseling: help people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges - educational: study and help people in educational settings - industrial/organizational: study and advise on behavior in the workplace |
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Descriptive Methods
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- yield descriptions of behavior but not necessarily casual explanations
- includes case studies, observational studies, psychological test, surveys (notes on blackboard) |
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correlational study
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descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena
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correlation
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measure of how strongly two variables are related to each other
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variables
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characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured or described by a numeric scale
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coefficient of correlation
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measure of correlation that ranges from +1.00 to -1.00
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positive correlation
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high variables of one variable are associated with high values of another, low with low (height and weight)
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negative correlation
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high values of one variable are associated with low values of the other (grades and absences)
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Inferential Statistics
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- these do not merely describe or summarize the data
- permit a researcher to draw inferences (conclusions based on evidence) |
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Significance Tests
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- tell researchers how likely a result was to have occurred by chance
- general results are significant at the .05 level - the result would be expected to occur by chance 5 times or fewer in 100 repetitions - if the significance level obtained in a study is higher than .05, then the result is said to be non-significant |
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personality
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distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual
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trait
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- a characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling
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psychodynamic theories
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- theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious dynamics within the individual
- began with Freud’s theories of personality development and structure |
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freud stage 1
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Oral stage
Birth - 18 months Pleasure focused on mouth (sucking, biting, chewing) LINK TO ADULT PERSONALITY: fixation at this stage can lead to smoking, overeating, nail biting, chewing, or dependence or clinginess |
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freud stage 2
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Anal stage
18-36 months Pleasure focused on bowel and bladder retention and elimination Toilet training associated with control issues LINK TO ADULT PERSONALITY: anal retention - neat, orderly, obsessive; anal expulsive - messy, disorganized |
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freud stage 3
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Phallic Stage
3-6 years Oedipus complex: desire to kill father and possess mother For boys: fear that father will discover boy’s sexual feelings for his mother and retaliate by castration For girls: penis envy LINK TO ADULT PERSONALITY: gender identity formation, components of adult personality in place |
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freud stage 4
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Latency stage
6 years to puberty no intense sexual conflicts |
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freud stage 5
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Genital stage
Puberty on Adult sexuality |
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Gordon Allport
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personality
- recognized that not all traits have equal weight and significance in people’s lives - central traits: characteristic ways of behaving, dealing with others, and reacting to new situations - secondary traits: more changeable aspects of personality, such as preferences, habits, casual opinions,, etc |
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Raymond B. Cattell
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personality
- factor analysis: statistical method for analyzing the Interco relations among various measures or test scores; clusters of measures or scores that are highly correlated are assumed to measure the same underlying trait or ability - found support for the existence of a cluster of central personality traits |
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The Big Five (OCEAN)
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- Openness to Experience vs. Resistance
- curious or not, imaginative or unimaginative, comfortable or uncomfortable with novelty - Conscientiousness vs. Impulsiveness - responsible or undependable, persevering or quick to give up, steadfast or fickle, tidy or careless, self-disciplined or impulsive - Extroversion vs. Introversion - outgoing or shy, talkative or silent, sociable or reclusive, adventurous or cautious - Agreeableness vs. Antagonism - good-natured or irritable, cooperative or abrasive, secure or suspicious/jealous - Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability - continuum of negative emotionality; includes anxiety, guilt, anger, resentment |
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Prenatal Development stages
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- germinal stage: begins at fertilization
- embryonic stage: two weeks after fertilization until the eighth week after conception - fetal stage: after eight weeks - important events in neural development occur throughout gestation |
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Contact comfort
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(Margaret and Harry Harlow)
- in primates, the innate pleasure derived from close physical contact; basis of the infant’s first attachment |
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attachment
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Mary Ainsworth tested attachment using strange situation - a parent-infant “separation and reunion” procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child’s attachment
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secure attachment
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a parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion
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insecure attachment
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a parent-infant relationship in which the baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger or apathy to reunion
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what causes insecure attachment?
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- abandonment and deprivation in the first two years of life
- parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic - child’s genetically influenced temperament - stressful circumstances in the family |
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language development theory by skinner
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behavioral approach
- experience and social learning is critical for language |
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language development theory by noam Chomsky
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innate perspective
- language acquisition device - an innate mental module that allows young children to develop language if they are exposed to an adequate sample of conversation |
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lawerence kohlberg in moral development
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understanding of right and wrong develops along w/ other cognitive abilities
-proposed 3 dilemmas |
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kohlberg's levels - preconventional level
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Preconventional Level
- moral reasoning focuses on the personal consequences of a person’s behavior - example: Heinz shouldn’t steal b/c he might go to jail |
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kohlberg's levels - conventional level
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Conventoinal Level
- moral judgement based on conformity and loyalty to others and on an understanding of the rule of law - example: Heinz shouldn’t b/c it is against the law |
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kohlberg's levels - post conventional level
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Post conventional Level
-moral judgment based on universal truths/abstract ideals - Kohlberg believed that few ppl achieved this level - example: shouldn’t bc social order would break down |
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modern emphasis on moral development
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tame desires + control emotions
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power assertion
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- method of child rearing in which the parent uses punishment/authority to correct the child’s misbehavior
- threats, physical abuse, etc - cuases aggressiveness, reduced empthy, poorer moral reasoning - results particularly bad for verbal abuse - power assertion does not have the same effect on all children in all environments/cultures - emotional context of punishment can affect outcomes - cultural expectations also associated w/ different outcomes |
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induction
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- a method of child rearing in which the parent appeals to the child’s own resources, abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting misbehavior
- explain why unacceptable - appeal to child’s helpful inclinations |
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diana baumrind
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- permissive: not demanding but highly responsive
- authoritative: demanding but responsive - authoritarian: demanding and unresponsive - uninvolved: not demanding/responsive |
