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142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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John Holland
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One trait-factor theorist
Career development is an interaction between a person and his/her environment - If we know what a person is like, we can predict what type of occupation will most likely produce satisfaction and success - If we assess a job closely enough, we can tell what type of person would be the best fit for it Interests - Are shaped by biology and environmental influences such as, family and culture |
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John Holland's RIASEC (Six Types)
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Realistic
Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional |
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R in RIASEC
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Realistic
- Likes to work outdoors and with tools and machines - May prefer dealing with things rather than people |
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I in RIASEC
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Investigative
- Scientific types - Likes to study and conduct experiments - Enjoys the sciences - Likes to study and work independently - May not be particularly people oriented |
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A in RIASEC
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Artistic
- Likes to express themselves and work independently - Interested in arts, music, drama, writing or other artistic areas - Often unconventional |
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S in RIASEC
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Social
- Likes to work with others - Often in a help capacity - Communicates well - Likes to solve problems through discussion and cooperation |
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E in RIASEC
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Enterprising
- Oriented toward leadership and management - Likes to work with others in a persuasive or leadership capacity - May enjoy sales - Often more assertive personalities than social people - May be interested in politics |
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C in RIASEC
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Conventional
- Enjoys activities involving close attention to detail such as math or verbal - Often describe themselves as orderly and dependable |
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Holland's Hexagon
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The themes closest to each other on the hexagon are more closely related
Those diagonal are less closely related to each other |
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Consistency - Holland
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Degree of compatibility of your codes
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Differentiation - Holland
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The degree of strength of your dominant type
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John Holland - Cont'd
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Work environments are primarily dominated by a particular "person" type (RIASEC) because these individuals have a tendency to seek out others who share their interest, skills, and etc.
People move toward "congruent" (matching) environments like person-environment fit Postulate that people will move out of incongruent environments - If you find yourself in a group of people who, after you get to know them, have very little in common with you - you are unlikely to keep putting yourself in that environment if you have a choice Few people are purely one type or another - Most of use have some similarities to more than one type |
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We can "measure" people and environments and "match" them
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People
- Strong Interest Inventory - Self-Directed Search - ACT Unisex Interest Inventory Environments We have classification systems of almost all occupations and majors by Holland's code |
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Congruence
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Educational and vocational behavior can be predicted by examining the degree of compatibility or congruence between a person and his/her environment as defined by the hexagon model
An individual is highly congruent when he/she is in an environment whose type is identical to his/her person type - A social person working in a social environment Individuals who are highly congruent with their environment will be more satisfied, higher achieving, and more stable than individuals whose types do not fit their environments as well |
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Research on Holland
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Person types do exist
Person types are relatively stable There is a positive relationship between congruence and: job satisfaction, choice stability, academic performance, academic persistence, and personality |
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Four Sources of Bandura's Model of Perceived Self-Efficacy
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Performance Accomplishments
Vicarious Experiences Emotional Arousal Verbal Persuasion |
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Performance Accomplishments - Bandura
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Through the process of socialization, girls frequently have less exposure to stereotypically masculine activities
Thus, woman are frequently denied experiences which would allow them to experience successful performance accomplishments in these activities |
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Vicarious Experiences - Bandura
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Although more women have more recently become involved in non-traditional tasks and occupations, women still constitute a minority in most nontraditional occupations
Such as role models and mentors |
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Emotional Arousal - Bandura
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Various studies have found evidence of a link between femininity and high levels of anxiety
Self-efficacy theory maintains the more individuals are socialized to fit feminine sex roles, the higher their level of anxiety will be which will reduce their perceptions of efficacy for nontraditional occupations |
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Verbal Persuasion - Bandura
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Discouraging or null environments
Environments which fail to give women the support and encouragement which facilitate self-efficacy for engaging in nontraditional tasks |
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Inseparability of Personal and Career Counseling
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Carrer counseling is just as important to people's lives as is "mental health" or "personal" counseling
- Careers are intricately related to generally cannot be separated from relationships - Careers are critical to people's self-esteem - Difficulties in career pursuits can cause tremendous emotional pain |
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Borad Issues in Career Counseling
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Stages of Development
- Career Choice (What should I do?) - Implementation (How do I get where I want to go?) - Adjustment (Now that I am here am I happy and doing well?) People may need career counseling in any one of these stages These three stages may recycle more than once in a person's life |
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Broad Issues in Career Counseling - Cont'd
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Work Adjustment
- Didn't make a good choice the first time around (Poor fit) - Person change over time (Values, interest, got burned out or is bored) - The work environment changed (Different co-workers, new people brought into the company, or changed to policies and organizational culture) |
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Structured Assessment Methods
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Aptitudes (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery)
Interests (Strong Interest Inventory) Values (Super's Work Values Inventory) Self-Perceptions of Ability and Competence (Betz's Measures of Self-Efficacy Expectations) |
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Unstructured Assessment Methods
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The Interview
- The relationships between counselor and client - What careers have you thought of? - What have been your favorite courses in school? - How do you like to spend your leisure time? - What do you want out of a job? - What do you want out of life? - What things do you feel you are good at? |
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Trait Factor Theories
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Assumptions
- There is one best fit job for each person - Our interests and abilities do not change over time, after reaching adulthood - Our interests and abilities are more responsible for our career choices and subsequent satisfaction What are areas that give people problems? - Lack of career choice - Uncertainty about career choice - Unwise career choice - Discrepancy between interest and abilities What is the counselor's role? - Help client understand him/herself - Help the client learn about occupations - Help the client fit these two together |
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Self-Efficacy
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Someone's confidence in their ability to do something is someone's self-efficacy
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Ethics Inquiries and Complaints
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An inquiry is a letter asking about or indicating intent to file a complaint
A complaint is a receipt of official signed complant form |
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What is the Ethics Code and the Law Differ?
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Psychologist must meet the higher ethical standard
Psychologist should make their commitment to the ethics code known Psychologist should try to resolve the conflict in a responsible manner in keeping with basic principles of human rights (2010 Amendment) |
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What Happens if You Don't Follow the Ethics Code?
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Disciplined by the APA ethics committee
Kicked out of the APA Disciplined or loss of license by state psychology boards |
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Ethical Standards
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Enforceable standards
The ten categories that you can make a complaint against a psychologist about - Resolving ethical issues - Competence - Human relations - Privacy and confidentiality - Advertising and other public statements - Record keeping and fees - Education and training - Research and publication - Assessment - Therapy |
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APA Ethics Code - Five General Principles
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Beneficence and Nonmaleficence (Do good and not do harm to people or society)
Fidelity and Responsibility (Pro-Bono work) Integrity Justice Respect for People's Rights and Dignity |
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APA Ethics Code
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Consists of four sections
Preamble - Aspirational Goals Five General Principles - Aspirational Goals Ethical Standards - Enforceable Rules |
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Strong Interest Inventory
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Most thoroughly research and widely used interest inventory
Matches a person's interest with jobs, education, and leisure activities Development (Introduced in 1927) - Strong looked at similarity between client's interests and those of satisfied workers - John Holland's theory of personality types added in 1974 revision (RIASEC) There is 291 iterms Indicate preferences from among five response options of inventory items made up of words, short phrases describing occupations, subjects areas, leisure activities, people, and personal characteristics |
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Strong Interest Inventory
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Pattern of responses are compared to patterns of responses of people in differing occupations and with differing interests
Goal is to determine likelihood that a person will find satisfaction in work typically down in a given occupation - Day to day activities of occupation are reflected in interest of those people employed in it -Those with similar patterns of interest, compatible values and necessary knowledge and abilities will be satisfied in that occupation Results are gender specific |
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Strong Interest Inventory
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6 General Occupational Themes (GOTs)
30 Basic Interest Scales (BISs) 122 Occupational Scales (OSs) 5 Personal Style Scales (PSSs) Scores are rank ordered based on the GOT scores to make it easier to see overall trends |
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General Occupational Themes
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GOTs provide global view of interests and occupational orientation
- Each theme is made up of at least 21 items - Points are added or subtracted for "like" and "dislike" responses to each category - Pay attention to two or three highest theme of RIASEC - Interpretive comment is "very little" to "very high" |
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Basic Interest Scales
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More focused aspects of the GOTs
30 specific interests that relate to work, leisure, and educational activities Points are added or subtracted for "likes" and "dislikes" responses for each category Categorized by GOT Can help to determine which part of the GOTs fit best for a person Interpretive comment is "very little" to "very high" |
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Occupational Scales
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These were the original scales on the Inventory
Indicates similarity to satisfied workers in 130 occupations Previous versions had separate occupations for males and females - current version uses same 130 occupations Points are added or subtracted for each item according to respondent's similarity to occupational sample's response Each scale only include items that differentiate satisfied orks from general representative sample Categorized by GOT |
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Personal Style Scales
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Measures preferences for broad styles of living, working, learning, and playing
Constructed as bipolar scales - Work Style + People versus idea/data/things - Learning environment + Practical/hand's on versus academic - Leadership style + Directs others versus lead by example - Risk taking (physical and general risk-taking) + Play it safe versus take chances - Team Orientation + Enjoy working with others versus working independently |
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Personal Style Scales
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Measures preferences for broad styles of living, working, learning, and playing
Constructed as bipolar scales - Work Style + People versus idea/data/things - Learning environment + Practical/hand's on versus academic - Leadership style + Directs others versus lead by example - Risk taking (physical and general risk-taking) + Play it safe versus take chances - Team Orientation + Enjoy working with others versus working independently |
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Skills Confidence Inventory
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Measure subjective beliefs about one's own abilities and skills
If you lack belief in your ability, you're unlikely to pursue a carer in that area, regardless of actual ability or interest 60 items Measures confidence for each of the 6 RIASEC Themes Task and activity items and subject area items "No confidence at all" to Complete confidence" Help to determine which areas may be most fruitful for career exploration |
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Skills Confidence Inventory
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Discrepancy in interest and confidence scores for a Theme could indicate an effect of gender (socialization)
Scored "very high confidence" to "very little confidence" SCTs provided in rank order Relationship to Interest and Confidence indicated - High priority for exploration - Low priority for exploration - Good option if confidence in skills can be increased - Possible option of interests develop, needs careful consideration |
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Two-Party System
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Client pays provider directly
No insurance involved |
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Three-Party System
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Fee for service
Indemnity Plan Insurance pay provider |
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Four-Party System
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HMO Act of 1973
Managed care regulates treatment and payment |
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HMO Act of 1973
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Provided federal funding for development of nonprofit and for-profit HMOs
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What is Managed Care?
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System that manages or controls what it spends on health care by closely monitoring how physicians and other medical professionals treat patients
Techniques for keeping costs down include: - Limiting coverage to care provided by specially selected doctors and hospitals - Requiring preauthorization for hospital care and other services - Limiting services and care provided Everything that has happened with MC was applied to physical health first Being apart of a panel will attract more client to the psychologist, so the lower pay balances out |
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Health Maintenance Organizations (HMO)
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Charge a fixed fee for each person enrolled and agrees to provide medical care for the subscriber as needed
Requires use of plan providers |
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Preferred Provider Organizations (PPO)
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Have a contractual arrangement with an individual or group of health care providers who agree to deliver services to benefit plan enrollees at negotiated (reduced) rates in exchange for access to patients and prompt payment
Freedom to go outside of network, but the client will pay more |
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Managed Care Concepts
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Gatekeeping
- Having to see your primary care provider before being referred and allowed to see a specialist Session Limits Reduced Inpatient Stays Diagnosis Related Groups - Relating a diagnosis to a dollar amount, allotting a set amount of money to treat that diagnosis Capitation - An amount given per head of a person Use of Less Trained Providers - Pay less based on the physicians experience |
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How has MC changed practice patterns?
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Shift in decision-making
- HMOs and PPOs have say Defending treatment decisions/demonstrating efficacy - Empirically Supported Treatments (ESTs) - Increased use of outcome measures Move from solo to group practices Additional administrative requirements Reduced fees |
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Ethical Issues in MC
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Informed Consent
Abandonment Confidentiality - HIPAA |
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Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
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HIPAA Privacy Rule outlines whom and under what circumstances psychologist can intentionally disclose patient information
HIPAA Security Rule focuses on protecting information from unintended disclosures through breaches of security including any reasonably anticipated threats or hazards and/or an inappropriate uses and disclosures of electronic confidential information |
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Prescription Privileges
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Access to Care
- Shortage of psychiatrists Safety and training What level of education and training should be required? - DoD |
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Prescription Privileges - 1984
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Hawaiian Senator calls for psychologist to seek Prescription Privileges
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Prescription Privileges - 1994
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Department of Defense graduates the first 2 prescribing psychologist
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Prescription Privileges - 1995
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APA formally endorses pursuing Prescription Privileges
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Prescription Privileges - 1999
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Guam calls for Prescription Privileges (In collaboration with physicians)
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Prescription Privileges - 2002
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New Mexico calls for Prescription Privileges
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Prescription Privileges - 2004
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Louisiana calls for Prescription Privileges
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Prescription Privileges - February 2006
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Lawsuit filed against California alleging violation of constitutional rights to adequate treatment because of the state's and county's inability to provide competent psychiatric care to patients in state mental hospitals, in jails, and mental health facilities
- Claimed that necessary numbers of competent psychiatrists are not abailable - Prescriptive authority for psychologist is suggested as remedy |
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Prescription Privileges - Oregon 2010
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Governor vetoes Prescription Privileges bill
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Stages of Counseling
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Relationship Building
Assessment and Diagnosis Formulation of Counseling Goals Intervention and Problem-Solvng Termination and Follow-uP Research and Evaluation |
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Relationship Building
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Empathic Understanding
Unconditional Positive Regard Congruence Respect Immediacy Confrontation Concreteness Self-Disclosure |
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Empathic Understanding (Relationship Building)
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Considered most important in promoting positive therapeutic outcome
Listening to client Understanding client's point of view Conveying that understanding so client feels understood |
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Unconditional Positive Regard (Relationship Building)
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Fundamental caring about the client
Nonjudgmental NOT approval of behavior |
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Congruence (Relationship Building)
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To be consistent in thinking and feeling
Being honest about your own feelings and limitations But this doesn't mean sharing everything |
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Respect (Relationship Building)
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Focusing on positive attributes of client and client strengths
Appreciate difference and uniqueness of client |
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Immediacy (Relationship Building)
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Talking about what is going on in here and now with client
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Confrontation (Relationship Building)
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Point out discrepancies between what the client is saying and what the client is doing
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Concreteness (Relationship Building)
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Helping clients discuss concerns in specific terms
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Self-Disclosure (Relationship Building)
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Share factual information (Self-Disclosing)
Share experience in counseling process with client (Self-Involving) |
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Research on Roger's Core Conditions
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Do enhance client-counselor relationship
Do promote positive counseling outcome Necessary but not sufficient |
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Assessment and Diagnosis
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Gain in-depth understanding of client
Identify issues that need attention - Standardized + Psychological tests that use norm group - Non- Standardized + Clinical Interview - Diagnosis (DSM-IV) + Suggests treatment possibilities |
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Formulation of Counseling Goals
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May help motivation if client are involved in determining goals
- Specific and concrete - Allows for evaluation of progress (Have the goals been met) |
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Intervention and Problem-Solving
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Discuss available treatment options (Individual, group, couples and etc)
- Consider client values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses - Can be useful to involved client in this process |
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Termination and Follow-Up
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Discussion of end of counseling with client
- Review course of counseling - Closure of client-counselor relationship - Discussion of client's post therapy plans |
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Research and Evaluation
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Contribute to scientific knowledge
Can be used to communicate accountability |
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Open-Ended Questions
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"How do you feel about that?"
Encourages client to elaborate because can't be answered with yes or no |
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Paraphrasing
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Demonstrates that the counselor has heard and understands the client
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Reflection of Feelings
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Client demonstrates that she understands what client is eeling
Communicates empathy |
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Encouragers
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"Yeah"
"Uh Huh" Facilitates client without interrupting Encourages client to continue |
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Clarifying Remarks
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"I didn't understand that"
Communication genuine desire to understand client |
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Summarizing
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Restrating the major concerns of the client
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Perception Check
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Checking in with client to make sure you're on the right track
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Effective Listening
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Don't judge or moralize
Don't prematurely analyze Don't parrot Don't use gimmicky phrases Pay attention to nonverbals Be tentative in your impressions |
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Common Problems for Beginning Counselors
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Focusing on the first issue
Overlooking the physical and medical issues Trying to "rescue" clients Trying to be perfect Having unrealistic expectations of the client Too much enthusiasm for latest technique Getting lost in process Inappropriate phrases ("Why", "I know how you feel") Having excessive desire to help Having excessive need to be liked Getting too emotionally involved Taking things too personally Difficulty differentiating between normal and abnormal Uncertainly about self-disclosure Uncertainty about confidentiality |
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Counseling Couples
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The desire is not to be working for one person or another
Instead you are working with the couple Usually one person in the couple wants to be there and is engaged Some session together, some individually |
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Common Issues that Couples Present
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No longer in "love"
Addictions Conflicts Over - Money - Sex - Children - Household Responsibility - In-Laws |
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Affairs
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Hard to define what an "affair" is
One may see it as emotional and another as physical Work with individuals on a one-on-one bases when dealing with an affair to tackle issues Just because they had an affair in the past does not mean they are not 100% committed to the relationship now The first session is usually a briefing of confidentiality and etc. Not everyone is bound by confidentiality The construction of mistrust |
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Couples - Things to Consider
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Importance of aligning with both
Managed Care Issues Do not want to reinforce negative emotions or actions So may have one being the focus of the session with the partner watching then switching roles A good tool to learn is how to de-escalate a situation If symptoms exists before the relationship began individual sessions may be needed Many insurance will not cover couples counseling Couples counseling does not appear to be as a severe as a personality disorder and etc. |
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John Gottman's Work (Cognitive Behavior in Style)
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Reports he can predict relationship success with 90% accuracy
Fighting is normal and healthy - it is how you fight that is important 69% of all conflicts are unresolvable It is more important to repair what you did during the fighting |
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John Gottman's Work
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Having good positive to negative ratios
Repair attempts Flooding and one's ability to self-sooth Harsh Start Up Humor Ability to accept influence from a partner |
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Gottman's Four Horseman
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Criticism
- Leads to defensiveness Stonewalling - Listener withdrawal Contempt - Using a air of superiority to discuss flaws Defensiveness Stonewalling is a male typical trait The ability to repair incidents is key in mastering a relationship Men have a higher physiological rate when fighting |
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Emotional Focused Couples Counseling - Susan Johnson
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Has received a good deal of empirical support
Attachment Theory Isolation is traumatizing for human being Goal is to help repair attachment damage that is playing out in a couple's reltaionship Couples have a primary emotion of anger when there are issues Brief Therapy about 10-15 session |
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Primary Emotion
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Primary emotions are those that we feel first, as a first response to a situation
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Secondary Emotion
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Secondary emotions appear after primary emotions
They may be caused directly by them |
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Attachment Theory
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We are all hard wired for emotional contact and responsiveness from significant others
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Family Therapy - Family Systems Approaches
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Focus on relationships among family members
Individuals reflect what is going on in the system When a system is threatened, it tries to regain static sense of equilibrium Goal of family therapy is to reorganize family system so it doesn't need symptom/problem Work with the whole family |
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Identified Patient
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Is the client who you are there for
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Personal Differentiation - Murray Bowen (Family Systens Approaches)
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Focuses on how emotional independent one is from ones family of origin (Fusion and Emotionally cut-off)
Multigenerational transmission process Triangulation Genogram Goal is develop autonomy of each family member |
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Dysfunctional Communication - Virginia Satir (Family Systems Approaches)
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Focuses on communication problems that result from unrealistic, unspoken expectations learned in childhood about way families work
Lack of self-esteem, confidence, and knowledge of "rules" keeps them from talking about it - Disturbed family functioning Teaches awareness of feelings and congruent communication Values insight into role of symptomatic behavior Learning to communicate more effectively increases feeling of confidence and self-esteem |
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Structural Approach - Salvador Minuchin (Family Systems Approaches)
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Famile is made of hierarchically organized subsystems
Problems arise when boundaries are unclear - Disengaged Family - Enmeshed Family Help families to establish appropriate boundaries and restructure subsystems in a direct way |
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Disengaged Family
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Rigid Boundaries
Families are disconnected |
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Enmeshed Family
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Boundaries are weak
Families are over involved |
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Strategic and Solution Focused (Family Systems Approaches)
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Goal is to design strategy to change problem behavior (Not gain insight, get in touch with feelings, change thoughts)
- Paradoxical intervention - First and second order change Therapist disrupts system to free it to move forward in creative and positive way Only small changes are needed Strengthen and enhance positive functions rather than "fix" negative functioning |
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Therapy with Children
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Children are different in not being able to say what is bothering them
No one to accurately communicate what is going on and not voluntary Children express themselves differently There are going to be something things to you fill the parents in one, because they do not have the legal confidentiality for them adult or guardian Legally required to report abuse |
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Classical Play Therapy
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Focus is on developing relationship with child
Lets child take the lead Create safe environment so child can express themselves No intereventions Goals are to help child develop self-esteem, responsibility, acceptance, become more self-directed, and socially appropriate Humanistic client centered People are good, if you put them in a positive environment they will grow in a positive way Conditions of worth may inhibit a child from positive growth Unstructured |
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Structured Play Therapy
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Therapist directs play
Therapist may direct child's exploration of feelings Emphasizes active intervention Includes directed questions |
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Behavior Therapy
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Reward desired behaviors
Extinguish undesired behaviors Time out Often parents are trained to use behavioral methods |
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Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
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Replace child's self-defeating speech and automatic thoughts with coping thoughts
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Health Psychology
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Assist in coping with medical procedures
- Imagery - Puppet or doll play to explain procedures Classical play therapy can help with expression Behavior therapy can increase compliance with medical regimes Hypnosis used to help children calm themselves |
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Assessment
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Process of collecting information in systematic, objective, empirical way about an individual's intellectual functioning, behavior, or personality so that predictions and decisions about them can be made
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Diagnosis
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Determining that a certain disorder is present of identifying a specific disorder that best matches and individual's symptoms
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Why Use an Assessment?
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To help an individual better understand herself/himself
Institutional decisions To do research To diagnosis To guide treatment decisions To measure treatment progress and outcomes |
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Assessment Process
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Referral Question
Collect Date - Interview + Intake + Mental Status - Testing (APA Standards) Interpretation Report |
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Validity
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The tool measuring what it says it measures
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Reliability
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Is the consistence of the tool used
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Diagnosis and the DSM IV
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The first DSM in 1952
Five revisions Next one expected May of 2013 Disorder are defined in term of signs and symptoms One only has to have a subset of symptoms Atheoretical Doesn't address etiology Multiaxial Cultural formulation and culture bound syndromes |
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Axis I - DSM IV
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Clinical Disorders and Other Conditions that may be the focus of Clinical Attention
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Assessment Process
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Referral Question
Collect Date - Interview + Intake + Mental Status - Testing (APA Standards) Interpretation Report |
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Axis II - DSM IV
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Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation
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Validity
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The tool measuring what it says it measures
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Axis III - DSM IV
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General Medical Conditions that may affect mental disorders
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Reliability
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Is the consistence of the tool used
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Axis IV - DSM IV
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Psychosocial and environmental stressors
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Diagnosis and the DSM IV
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The first DSM in 1952
Five revisions Next one expected May of 2013 Disorder are defined in term of signs and symptoms One only has to have a subset of symptoms Atheoretical Doesn't address etiology Multiaxial Cultural formulation and culture bound syndromes |
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Axis V - DSM IV
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Global assessment of function (Current, highest past year, at discharge, and etc)
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Axis I - DSM IV
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Clinical Disorders and Other Conditions that may be the focus of Clinical Attention
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Cognitive and Intelligence Tests
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They predict your grades
Wechsler Tests |
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Axis II - DSM IV
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Personality Disorders and Mental Retardation
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Axis III - DSM IV
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General Medical Conditions that may affect mental disorders
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Axis IV - DSM IV
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Psychosocial and environmental stressors
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Axis V - DSM IV
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Global assessment of function (Current, highest past year, at discharge, and etc)
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Cognitive and Intelligence Tests
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They predict your grades
Wechsler Tests |
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Personality Measures
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Projective
Provide ambiguous stimuli Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Rorschach |
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Personality Measures
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Objective
List of question to which on gives an answer (agree/disagree or true/false) Myers-Briggs (MBTI) MMPI-II |
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Multicultural Counseling Competencies
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Awareness of personal beliefs/attitudes toward culturally diverse clients
Knowledge about diverse cultures Techniques ability to use intervention skills/techniques that are culturally appropriate |
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Approaches to Multicultural Training and Counseling
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Traditional
Specific knowledge and skills Integrated |
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Recommendation for Clinical Practice
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Direct therapeutic style
- Being up front with what is expected during the sessions and therapy overall Addressing client's expectations Giving client opportunity to provide feedback and express concerns Therapist self-disclosure Professional courtesy Don't apply generic interventions Explore how race/ethnicity/culture affet presenting concerns Acknowledge that differences may influence therapy relationship |
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Tripartite Framework for Multiple Dimensions of Personality
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Individual Level
- Each individual is unique (genetic endowment, nonshared experiences) Group Level - We are born into cultural groups - Which group identities are most salient for us? - What do we share with other members of this group? Universal Level - We also share many similarities with all humans (Physical/biological features, common life experiences, self-awareness) |
