Psychology

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Priming

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* the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
* can influence behaviors, interpretations, and perception of others
* smells funnel cake, thinks of fair
* when people are primed with money related words, they were less likely to help others

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Context Dependent Memory

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* putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime memory retrieval
* examples:
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* words heard underwater were best recalled underwater
* you may better recall psychological concepts if you refer back to this class. how would you perform on the exam if we took it in a different classroom?

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State Dependent Memory

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* mood-congruent memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood
* if you were in a really bad mood you may recall negative events
* when you are a teen you may perceive your parents as wonderful when you are having a great week, and if you are having a bad week you could make them.
* helps explain why our moods persist

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Serial Position Effect

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* our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
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* if you meet a lot of people you will be able to remember the beginning and last names easier than the middle

* recency effect: The last last you recall are still in your working memory. This decays after awhile and then you will more likely remember the first names.
* primacy effect: You had the chance to rehearse those first things.

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What is forgetting?

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* The inability to retrieve information, due to poor encoding, storage and retrieval
* forgetting is good and bad...why?
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* bad: it could be inefficient for us to remember absolutely everything

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* anterograde amnesia:

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the inability to form new memories

* lose capability to form explicit memories (memories of experiences and facts)
* automatic processing remains intact
* if you met somebody, 20 seconds later you would not remember
* guy in rehab in 50 first dates

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* retrograde amnesia:

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inability to retrieve information from one's past
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* not able to retrieve old memories
* you can learn new things

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encoding failure

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a lot of times forgetting happens because we don't encode all information. The real penny above is A. we have seen a million pennies but we do not always remember it.

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Storage Decay

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* poor durability can lead to decaying of encoded information
* ebbinghaus: studied durability of stored memories. He taught himself nonsense syllables on day one and on day 2 he recorded how many times he had to rehearse them to recall them
* you lose a lot of information at first but then it levels off
* ebbinghaus led to the learning curve

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Retreival Failure:

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* although the information is retained in long-term memory store, it cannot be accessed
* tip of the tongue is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (what makes bookd cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (Hemoglobin)

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* Proactive Inference:

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the distruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
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* example: if you get a new cell phone number, you cant remember because you had the old one so long

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* Retroactive interference:

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the disruptive effect of the new learning on the recall of old information
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* someone singing new lyrics to an old song and now you have trouble remembering old lyrics

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* motivated forgetting
*

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* forgetting can occur at all stages
* Freud

* repression: the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories.

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explicit-memory system:

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the frontal lobes and hippocampus

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implicit memory system:

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The cerebellum and basal ganglia (i can tie my shoe, i know how to ride a bike)

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* frontal lobe:

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deals with past experiences
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* brain regions send input to frontal lobes for working memory precessing
* left and right frontal lobes process different types of memories
* left is verbal and right is visual

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* hippocampus:

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* like the save button for new explicit memories.
* memories are not permanently stored there
* processes the day's experience during sleep
* if we damaged left of hippocampus, they would struggle storing verbal short term information
* if we damaged right of hippocampus, they would struggle storing visual short term information

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Implicit memory system

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* Cerebellum: stores implicit memories learned by classical conditioning.
* Basal ganglia: facilitate formation of procedural memory for skills. ex) skill of learning how to shoot a basketball is located here
* if you damage the cerebellum you lose the ability to develop reflex responses or habits
* if you damage the basal ganglia it would be harder for you to develop motor skills that stick

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emotions

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trigger stress hormones that influence memory formation

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amygdala:

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provoked by stress hormones initiate a memory trace in the frontal lobes and basal ganglia and boost activity in memory forming areas

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flashbulb memories:

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a clear memory of an emotionally signinficant moment. ex) sept 11

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Synaptic changes

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* with increased activity in particular pathways, neural interconnections are forming and strengthening

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* long term potentiation (LTP) -

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a synaptic change

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

* sending neuron needs less prompting to release its neurotransmitter, and more connection exist between neurons
* believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory
* the sending neuron does not need as much stimulation to perpetuate that impulse.

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Correlation-

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* a measure of the extent to which two factors are related to one another and how well either factor predicts the other

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* Correlation coefficient-

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a statistical index of the relationship between two things.

* also called Pearson's r Correlation
* ranges form -1 to +1

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* Scatter plots-

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a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represent the two values of two variables. The slope indicates the direction of the relationship while the amount of scatter indicates the strength of the correlation. (Little scatter means high correlation).
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* example) does the amount of time spent studying for class relate to exam performance?

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does correlation imply causation?

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no

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Experimentation

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* allows researchers to single out effects of one or more factors by
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* manipulating the factors of interest
* controlling (holding constant) other factors

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Experimental group

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- group that is exposed to the treatment, or to one version of the independent variable

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control group:

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the group that is not exposed to the treatment, and instead is used as a comparison group

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* Random Assignment -

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assigning participants to the control or experimental group by chance
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* allows researchers to eliminate extraneous variables that may influence the relationship between two variables

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double-blind procedure:

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both the participants and the researchers are uninformed in an experiment

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* Independent variable:

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the experimental factor. One that is manipulated, who's effect is being studied

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confound variables:

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factors other than independent that might produce an effects

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Dependent variable-

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the outcome factor; this factor depends what happens in the experimental condition

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* statistical significance-

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a statement of the likelihood that an obtained result occured by chance. says nothing about the importance of the result. That is left to researcher and their interpretation

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Measures of Retention:

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the three ways that psychologists measure retention
recall, recognition, relearning

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Memory:

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learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved.

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Information-processing models:

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an analogy between the brain and a computer. In order to remember something, we must...

* encode: trying to understand the information
* storage
* retreival

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Connectionism:

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* memories are products of interconnected neural networks. These pathways strengthen the more we use them
* new pathways form when we learn something new
* specific memories arise from particular activation patterns with these networks

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atkinson and schiffrin

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connectionism and the first memory model

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sensory input:

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spacial input. Things you hear or see...etc
we encode this information by focusing on it and turning it into short term memory
in order to encode that into long term memory we use different strategies and once in long term memory you can later retrieve it

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Working memory:

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Alan Baddelay

* a newer understanding of short term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of information retrieved from lklong term memory
* **difference between short term: short term was just a holding place and working memory is active

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Two main functions of working memory

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* active processing of incoming visual and auditory information
* focusing our spotlight of attention: being able to focus on important stuff is key because our brain is taking in so much

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* effortful processing-

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort ex) taking notes
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* stores explicit memories memories of experience or things that you know

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* Automatic processing:

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unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and well learned information such as word meanings, learning to tie a shoe or ride a bike.
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* Implicit memories stuff that are independent of explicit memories, stuff you have stored that is almost automatic.

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this two track memory system emphasizes the fact that we learn simultaneously

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automatic vs. effortful processing

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encoding and automatic processing:

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* implicit memories include procedural memory for automatic skills
* We unconsciously process about
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* space: knowing you room, awareness of whats around you, reading a book and being able to kind of remember where you were
* time: retracing your steps, we unconsciously record the sequence of our day
* frequency: unconsciously keeping track of how many times things occur

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Sensory Memory:

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part of effortful processing, records a momentary image of a scene or echo of a sound

* iconic memory: Sperling (1960)
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* momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.
* exposed people to matrix

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is sensory memory engrained in long term memory?

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no

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* capacity of short term memory

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can hold about seven information pieces (give or take two)

* decays quickly without rehearsal ex) phone number

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working memory capacity

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depends on age and other factors. young people remember better and are better at multitasking

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Effortful processing strategies

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chunking
mnemonics
hierarchies
distributed practice

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* chunking:

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs autimatically. Ex) we chunk phone numbers

* enables Effortful processing strategieseasier recall

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mnemonics:

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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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* hierarchies:

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help us retrieve information effectively.
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* Ex) taking notes in an outline format. Involves organizing our information into categories.

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* self-reference effect:

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especially good recall for information we can relate to ourselves
* the amount remembered depends both on the time spent learning and on your making it meaningful for deep processing.