Psychology 200 - Test 1

Front 1

Behaviorism

Back 1

field of psychology that concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not on mental processes

Front 2

Biopsychologist

Back 2

specialist who tries to explain behavior in terms of biological factors, such as electrical and chemical activities in the nervous system, the effects of drugs and hormones, genetics, and evolutionary pressures

Front 3

Clinical psychologist

Back 3

someone with an advanced degree in psychology, with a specialty in understanding and helping people with psychological problems

Front 4

Clinical social worker

Back 4

person with a degree in social work instead of psychology, who helps people with psychological problems in ways similar to those of a clinical psychologist

Front 5

Cognition

Back 5

processes of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge

Front 6

Cognitive psychologist

Back 6

specialist who studies thought processes and the acquisition of knowledge

Front 7

Comparative psychologist

Back 7

specialist who compares different animal species

Front 8

Counseling psychologist

Back 8

someone trained to help people with educational, vocational, marriage, health-related, and other decisions

Front 9

Cross-cultural psychologist

Back 9

a psychologist who compares the behavior of people from different cultures

Front 10

Determinism

Back 10

assumption that all behavior has a cause, or determinant, in the observable world

Front 11

Developmental psychologist

Back 11

specialist who studies the behavioral capacities of different ages and how behavior changes with age

Front 12

Dualism

Back 12

view that the mind is separate from the brain

Front 13

Ergonomist

Back 13

psychologist with engineering skills who works to facilitate the operation of machinery so that the average person can use it as efficiently and as safely as possible

Front 14

Evolutionary psychologist

Back 14

one who tries to explain behavior in terms of the evolutionary history of the species, including reasons evolution might have favored a tendency to act in particular ways

Front 15

Forensic psychologist

Back 15

one who provides advice and consultation to police, lawyers, courts, or other parts of the criminal justice system

Front 16

Free will

Back 16

doctrine that behavior is caused by a person’s independent decisions, not by external determinants

Front 17

Functionalism

Back 17

attempt to understand how mental processes produce useful behaviors

Front 18

Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology

Back 18

psychological study of people at work

Front 19

Introspection

Back 19

looking within oneself

Front 20

Learning and motivation

Back 20

study of how behavior depends on the outcomes of past behaviors and on current motivations

Front 21

Mind-brain problem

Back 21

philosophical question of how the conscious mind is related to the physical nervous system, including the brain

Front 22

Monism

Back 22

view that consciousness is inseparable from the physical brain

Front 23

Nature-nurture issue

Back 23

question of the relative roles played by heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in determining differences in behavior

Front 24

Psychiatry

Back 24

branch of medicine that deals with emotional disturbances

Front 25

Psychoanalyst

Back 25

psychotherapist who relies heavily on the theories of Sigmund Freud

Front 26

Psychology

Back 26

systematic study of behavior and experience

Front 27

Psychophysical function

Back 27

mathematical description of the relationship between the physical properties of a stimulus and its perceived properties

Front 28

School psychologist

Back 28

specialist in the psychological condition of students

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Social psychologist

Back 29

psychologist who studies social behavior and how individuals influence other people and are influenced by other people

Front 30

Structuralism

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Structuralism

Front 31

95% confidence interval

Back 31

range within which the true population mean lies with 95% certainty

Front 32

Blind observer observer

Back 32

who can record data without knowing what the researcher has predicted

Front 33

Burden of proof

Back 33

obligation to present evidence to support one’s claim

Front 34

Case history

Back 34

thorough description of a single individual, including information on both past experiences and current behavior

Front 35

Control group

Back 35

group treated in the same way as the experimental group except for the procedure that the experiment is designed to test

Front 36

Convenience sample

Back 36

group chosen because of its ease of study

Front 37

Correlation

Back 37

measure of the relationship between two variables, which are both outside the investigator’s control

Front 38

Correlation coefficient

Back 38

mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables, ranging from +1 (perfect positive relationship) to 0 (no linear relationship) to -1 (perfect negative relationship)

Front 39

Correlational study

Back 39

procedure in which investigators measure the correlation between two variables without controlling either of them

Front 40

Cross-cultural samples

Back 40

groups of people from at least two cultures

Front 41

Deduction

Back 41

process of deriving a conclusion from premises already accepted

Front 42

Demand characteristics

Back 42

cues that tell a subject what is expected of him or her and what the experimenter hopes to find

Front 43

Dependent variable

Back 43

item that an experimenter measures to determine how changes in the independent variable affect it

Front 44

Descriptive statistics

Back 44

mathematical summaries of results, such as measures of the average and the amount of variation

Front 45

Double-blind study

Back 45

study in which neither the observer nor the subjects know which subjects received which treatment

Front 46

Experimental group

Back 46

group that receives the treatment that an experiment is designed to test

Front 47

Experimenter bias

Back 47

tendency of an experimenter to unintentionally distort procedures or results based on the experimenter’s own expectations of the outcome of the study

Front 48

Experiments

Back 48

studies in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at least one other variable

Front 49

Extrasensory perception (ESP)

Back 49

alleged ability of certain people to acquire information without using any sense organ and without receiving any form of physical energy

Front 50

Falsifiable

Back 50

making sufficiently precise predictions that we can at least imagine evidence that would contradict the theory (if anyone had obtained such evidence)

Front 51

Illusory correlation

Back 51

apparent relationship based on casual observations of unrelated or weakly related events

Front 52

Independent variable

Back 52

in an experiment the item that an experimenter manipulates to determine how it affects the dependent variable

Front 53

Induction

Back 53

process of inferring a general principle from observations

Front 54

Inferential statistics

Back 54

statements about large populations based on inferences from small samples

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Informed consent

Back 55

subject’s agreement to take part in an experiment after being told what to expect

Front 56

Mode

Back 56

score that occurs most frequently in a distribution of scores

Front 57

Meta-analysis

Back 57

method of taking the results of many experiments, weighting each one in proportion to the number of participants, and determining the overall average effect

Front 58

Naturalistic observation

Back 58

careful examination of what many people or nonhuman animals do under natural conditions

Front 59

Normal distribution (or normal curve)

Back 59

symmetrical frequency of scores clustered around the mean

Front 60

Operational definition

Back 60

definition that specifies the operations (or procedures) used to produce or measure something; a way to give it a numerical value

Front 61

Parsimony

Back 61

(literally, stinginess) scientists’ preference for the theory that explains the results using the simplest assumptions

Front 62

Random assignment

Back 62

chance procedure for assigning subjects to groups so that every subject has the same probability as any other subject of being assigned to a particular group

Front 63

Random sample

Back 63

group of people picked in random fashion so that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected

Front 64

Parsimony

Back 64

(literally, stinginess) scientists’ preference for the theory that explains the results using the simplest assumptions

Front 65

Range

Back 65

statement of the highest and lowest scores in a distribution of scores

Front 66

Random assignment

Back 66

chance procedure for assigning subjects to groups so that every subject has the same probability as any other subject of being assigned to a particular group

Front 67

Replicable result

Back 67

result that can be repeated (at least approximately) by any competent investigator who follows the same procedures used in the original study

Front 68

Random sample

Back 68

group of people picked in random fashion so that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected

Front 69

Representative sample

Back 69

selection of the population chosen to match the entire population with regard to specific variables

Front 70

Range

Back 70

statement of the highest and lowest scores in a distribution of scores

Front 71

Single-blind study

Back 71

study in which either the observer or the subjects are unaware of which subjects received which treatment

Front 72

Replicable result

Back 72

result that can be repeated (at least approximately) by any competent investigator who follows the same procedures used in the original study

Front 73

Action potential

Back 73

excitation that travels along an axon at a constant strength, no matter how far it must travel

Front 74

Alcohol

Back 74

class of molecules that includes methanol, ethanol, propyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol), and others

Front 75

Autonomic nervous system

Back 75

section of the nervous system that controls the functioning of the internal organs, such as the heart

Front 76

Axon

Back 76

single, long, thin, straight fiber that transmits information from a neuron to other neurons or to muscle cells

Front 77

Binding problem

Back 77

question of how separate brain areas combine forces to produce a unified perception of a single object

Front 78

Cell body

Back 78

part of the neuron that contains the nucleus of the cell

Front 79

Central nervous system

Back 79

brain and spinal cord

Front 80

Cerebellum

Back 80

(Latin for “little brain”) hindbrain structure that is active in the control of movement, especially for complex, rapid motor skills and behaviors that require precise timing

Front 81

Cerebral cortex

Back 81

outer surface of the forebrain

Front 82

Corpus callosum

Back 82

large set of axons connecting the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex and thus enabling the two hemispheres to communicate with each other

Front 83

Dendrite

Back 83

one of the widely branching structures of a neuron that receive transmissions from other neurons

Front 84

Depressants

Back 84

drugs that predominantly decrease arousal

Front 85

Dopamine

Back 85

neurotransmitter that promotes activity levels and facilitates movement

Front 86

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Back 86

device that measures and amplifies slight electrical changes on the scalp that reflect brain activity

Front 87

Endocrine system

Back 87

set of glands that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream

Front 88

Endorphins

Back 88

chemicals produced by the brain that have effects resembling those of opiates, such as inhibiting pain

Front 89

Epilepsy

Back 89

condition characterized by abnormal rhythmic activity of brain neurons

Front 90

Evolutionary explanation

Back 90

an explanation that relates behavior to the evolutionary history of the species

Front 91

Frontal lobe

Back 91

portion of each cerebral hemisphere at the anterior pole, with sections that control movement and certain aspects of memory

Front 92

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Back 92

technique that uses magnetic detectors outside the head to measure the amounts of hemoglobin, with and without oxygen, in different parts of the brain and thereby provides an indication of current activity levels in various brain areas

Front 93

Glia

Back 93

cell of the nervous system that insulates neurons, removes waste materials (e.g., dead cells), and performs other supportive functions

Front 94

Hallucinogens

Back 94

drugs that induce sensory distortions

Front 95

Hemisphere

Back 95

left or right half of the brain

Front 96

Hormone

Back 96

chemical released by glands and conveyed by the blood to other parts of the body, where it alters activity

Front 97

Magnetoencephalograph (MEG)

Back 97

device that records rapid magnetic changes during brain activity

Front 98

Medulla

Back 98

structure that is located in the hindbrain and is an elaboration of the spinal cord; controls many muscles in the head and several life-preserving functions, such as breathing

Front 99

Narcotics

Back 99

drugs that produce drowsiness, insensitivity to pain, and decreased responsiveness to events

Front 100

Neurons

Back 100

cells of the nervous system that receive information and transmit it to other cells by conducting electrochemical impulses

Front 101

Neurotransmitters

Back 101

chemicals that are stored in the terminal of an axon and that, when released, activate receptors of other neurons

Front 102

Occipital lobe

Back 102

rear portion of each cerebral hemisphere, critical for vision

Front 103

Opiates

Back 103

either drugs derived from the opium poppy or synthetic drugs that produce effects similar to those of opium derivatives

Front 104

Parietal lobe

Back 104

portion of each cerebral hemisphere; the main receiving area for the sense of touch and for the awareness of one’s own body and perception of location of the body in space

Front 105

Parkinson’s disease

Back 105

condition that affects about 1% of people over the age of 50; the main symptoms are difficulty initiating voluntary movement, slowness of movement, tremors, rigidity, and depressed mood

Front 106

Peripheral nervous system

Back 106

bundles of axons that convey messages between the spinal cord and the rest of the body

Front 107

Physiological explanation

Back 107

an explanation describes the mechanism that produces a behavior

Front 108

Pons

Back 108

structure adjacent to the medulla that receives sensory input from the head and controls many muscles in the head

Front 109

Positron-emission tomography (PET)

Back 109

technique that provides a high-resolution image of brain activity by recording radioactivity emitted from injected chemicals

Front 110

Postsynaptic neuron

Back 110

neuron on the receiving end of a synapse

Front 111

Prefrontal cortex

Back 111

area in the anterior portion of the frontal lobes, critical for planning movements and for certain aspects of memory

Front 112

Primary motor cortex

Back 112

strip in the posterior (rear) part of the frontal cortex that controls fine movements, such as hand and finger movements

Front 113

Primary somatosensory cortex

Back 113

strip in the anterior (forward) part of the parietal lobe that receives most touch sensations and other information about the body

Front 114

Reflexes

Back 114

rapid, automatic responses to stimuli

Front 115

Resting potential

Back 115

electrical polarization that ordinarily occurs across the membrane of an axon that is not undergoing an action potential

Front 116

Spinal cord

Back 116

part of the central nervous system that communicates with sensory neurons and motor neurons below the level of the head

Front 117

Stem cells

Back 117

undifferentiated cells

Front 118

Stimulants

Back 118

drugs that boost energy, heighten alertness, increase activity, and produce a pleasant feeling

Front 119

Synapse

Back 119

specialized junction between one neuron and another; at this point one neuron releases a neurotransmitter, which either excites or inhibits the next neuron

Front 120

Temporal lobe

Back 120

portion of each cerebral hemisphere; the main processing area for hearing, complex aspects of vision, and certain aspects of emotional behavior

Front 121

Terminal bouton

Back 121

bulge at the end of an axon from which the axon releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter

Front 122

Tranquilizers (or anxiolytic drugs)

Back 122

medications that help people to relax

Front 123

Absolute sensory threshold

Back 123

intensity at which a given individual can detect a sensory stimulus 50% of the time; a low threshold indicates the ability to detect faint stimuli

Front 124

Accommodation of the lens

Back 124

adjustment of the thickness of the lens to focus on objects at different distances

Front 125

Binocular cues

Back 125

visual cues that depend on the action of both eyes

Front 126

Blind spot

Back 126

areas where the optic nerve exits the retina

Front 127

Brightness contrast

Back 127

increase or decrease in an object’s apparent brightness because of the effects of objects around it

Front 128

Cataract

Back 128

disorder in which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy

Front 129

Closure

Back 129

in Gestalt psychology tendency to imagine the rest of an incomplete, familiar figure

Front 130

Color constancy

Back 130

tendency of an object to appear nearly the same color under a variety of lighting conditions

Front 131

Common fate

Back 131

tendency to perceive objects as part of the same group if they change or move in similar ways at the same time

Front 132

Cones

Back 132

visual receptors that are adapted for color vision, daytime vision, and detailed vision

Front 133

Continuation

Back 133

in Gestalt psychology the tendency to fill in the gaps in an interrupted line

Front 134

Convergence

Back 134

degree to which the eyes turn in to focus on a close object

Front 135

Cornea

Back 135

rigid, transparent structure on the surface of the eyeball

Front 136

Dark adaptation

Back 136

gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light

Front 137

Depth perception

Back 137

perception of distance, which enables us to experience the world in three dimensions

Front 138

Electromagnetic spectrum

Back 138

continuum of all the frequencies of radiated energy,

Front 139

Feature detector

Back 139

neuron in the visual system of the brain that responds to the presence of a certain simple feature, such as a horizontal line

Front 140

Figure and ground

Back 140

object and its background

Front 141

Fovea

Back 141

central part of the retina that has a greater density of receptors, especially cones, than any other part of the retina

Front 142

Ganglion cells

Back 142

neurons in the eye that receive input from bipolar cells, which in turn receive their input from the visual receptors

Front 143

Gestalt psychology

Back 143

approach to psychology that seeks to explain how we perceive overall patterns

Front 144

Glaucoma

Back 144

condition characterized by increased pressure within the eyeball, resulting in damage to the optic nerve and therefore a loss of vision

Front 145

Good figure

Back 145

in Gestalt psychology the tendency to perceive simple, symmetrical figures

Front 146

Hyperopia

Back 146

farsightedness; the inability to focus on nearby objects

Front 147

Induced movement

Back 147

perception that an object is moving and the background is stationary when in fact the object is stationary and the background is moving

Front 148

Iris

Back 148

colored structure on the surface of the eye, surrounding the pupil

Front 149

Lens

Back 149

flexible structure that can vary its thickness to enable the eye to focus on objects at different distances

Front 150

Monocular cues

Back 150

visual cues that are just as effective with one eye as with both

Front 151

Moon illusion

Back 151

apparent difference between the size of the moon at the horizon and its size when viewed higher in the sky

Front 152

Myopia

Back 152

nearsightedness; the inability to focus on distant objects

Front 153

Negative afterimage

Back 153

color that a person sees after staring at its opposite color for a while

Front 154

Opponent-process theory

Back 154

theory that we perceive color in terms of a system of paired opposites: red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus black

Front 155

Optic nerve

Back 155

paired opposites: red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus

Front 156

Optical illusion

Back 156

misinterpretation of a visual stimulus as being larger or smaller, or straighter or more curved, than it really is

Front 157

Perception

Back 157

interpretation of sensory information

Front 158

Pitch

Back 158

perception closely related to the frequency of sound waves

Front 159

Presbyopia

Back 159

decreased flexibility of the lens and therefore the inability to focus on nearby objects

Front 160

Proximity

Back 160

(a) in Gestalt psychology the tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group (b) in social psychology the tendency to choose as friends people with whom we come in frequent contact

Front 161

Pupil

Back 161

adjustable opening in the eye through which light enters

Front 162

Receptor

Back 162

specialized cell that converts environmental energies into signals for the nervous system

Front 163

Retina

Back 163

layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball

Front 164

Retinal disparity

Back 164

difference in the apparent position of an object as seen by the left and right retinas

Front 165

Retinex theory

Back 165

theory that color perception results from the cerebral cortex’s comparison of various retinal patterns

Front 166

Reversible figure

Back 166

stimulus that you can perceive in more than one way

Front 167

Rods

Back 167

visual receptors that are adapted for vision in dim light

Front 168

Sensation

Back 168

conversion of energy from the environment into a pattern of response by the nervous system

Front 169

Similarity

Back 169

Gestalt psychology the tendency to perceive objects that resemble each other as belonging to a group

Front 170

Stimuli

Back 170

energy in the environment that affects what we do

Front 171

Stroboscopic movement

Back 171

illusion of movement created by a rapid succession of stationary images

Front 172

Trichromatic theory (Young-Helmholtz theory)

Back 172

theory that color vision depends on the relative rate of response of three types of cones

Front 173

Waterfall illusion

Back 173

phenomenon in which prolonged staring at a waterfall and then looking at nearby cliffs causes those cliffs to appear flowing upward